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"The Tragedy of the Commons," and Beyond

The Original Essay and Some Responses

Also in Science by Garrett Hardin

The Commons as Scientific Metaphor

Selected Other Web Resources

Common Pool Resources, Sustainability, and Law

Other Links on Population, Environment, and Sustainability


"The Tragedy of the Commons," and Beyond
On 13 December 1968, the late Garrett Hardin published an essay in Science that was destined to become one of the journal's most requested articles in the subsequent 35 years. Below, we feature links to the original essay, and some of the scientific dialogue that Hardin's controversial ideas have spurred, as played out in the pages of Science. (Additional information on Hardin and his work can be found at the Web site of the Garrett Hardin Society.) [Note: The PDF files in the following sections, which we are making available to all users, are from the Science Magazine archive developed by JSTOR, and are posted here by agreement with JSTOR.]
The Original Essay and Some Responses
The Tragedy of the Commons Garrett Hardin Science 162, 1243-1248 (1968) [Abstract] [Full text] [PDF] (2.0 MB) Letters: Freedom to Breed Jordan D. Lewis; Robert E. Drury; Steven Polgar; Robert H. Good Science 163, 518-519 (1969) [PDF] (0.8 MB) The Tragedy of the Commons Revisited Beryl L. Crowe Science 166, 1103-1107 (1969) [PDF] (1.4 MB)	Extensions of "The Tragedy of the Commons" Garrett Hardin Science 280, 682-683 (1998) [Summary] [Full text] Revisiting the Commons: Local Lessons, Global Challenges Elinor Ostrom et al. Science 284, 278-282 (1999) [Abstract] [Full text] "Tragedy of the Commons" Author Dies Constance Holden Science 302, 32 (2003) [Summary] [Full text]
*Also in Science* by Garrett Hardin**
Editorial: Parenthood: Right or Privilege? Garrett Hardin Science 169, 427 (1970) [PDF] (0.3 MB) Letters: Choices of Parenthood Moni Nag; George D. Webb; Jan Berkhout; Patrick Butler, Jr.; Wolfgang Jochile; Robert McClenon; Charles S. Rebert; Darrell J. Weber; Garrett Hardin Science 163, 257-262 (1970) [PDF] (2.6 MB) Editorial: Nobody Ever Dies of Overpopulation Garrett Hardin Science 171, 527 (1971) [PDF] (0.2 MB) Editorial: The Survival of Nations and Civilizations Garrett Hardin Science 172, 1297 (1971) [PDF] (0.2 MB) Editorial: A Humane Approach to Population Problems [Comment on "The Survival of Nations and Civilizations"] Mina Rees Science 173, 381 (1971) [PDF] (0.2 MB) Letters: Trustees of Civilizations [Letters on "The Survival of Nations and Civilizations"] Albert Paolino; Mott D. Cannon; Paul J. Stamler; Karl Sax; Gerald Audesirk; Garrett Hardin Science 174, 1077-1078 (1971) [PDF] (0.5 MB)	Book Review: Inconvenient Alternatives [Review of Hardin's Exploring the New Ethics for Survival] G. M. Woodwell Science 178, 1191-1192 (1972) [PDF] (0.5 MB) Feeding the World's Poor [Letters on Hardin's "lifeboat ethics" concept] Malcolm C. Whatley; J. D. Martin; D. N. Byrne; J. L. Moore; J. M. Gillispie; J. K. Wangberg; F. A. Cotton; Roger Revelle Science 187, 1026-1032 (1975) [PDF] (1.7 MB) Editorial: Will Xerox Kill Gutenberg? Garrett Hardin Science 198, 883 (1977) [PDF] (0.2 MB) Letters: Will Gutenberg Survive? John L. Gueriguian; Loring Ingraham; Tad E. Reynales; William T. Knox; Eric R. Pianka; M. B. Kirkham; Garrett Hardin Science 199, 122-125 (1978) [PDF] (1.4 MB)
The Commons as Scientific Metaphor
In addition to spurring discussion in the realm of population studies and the environment, Hardin's "Tragedy of the Commons" essay served up a powerful metaphor for a variety of situations at the nexus of science and society, in realms ranging from biomedicine to university administration to the Internet. Here is a small sample of Science research papers and policy articles during the past several years that have taken the notion of the commons as their jumping-off point.
Social Dilemmas and Internet Congestion Bernardo A. Huberman and Rajan M. Lukose Science 277, 535-537 (1997) [Abstract] [Full text] Can Patents Deter Innovation? The Anticommons in Biomedical Research Michael A. Heller and Rebecca S. Eisenberg Science 280, 698-701 (1998) [Abstract] [Full text] State Policy and Pasture Degradation in Inner Asia David Sneath Science 281, 1147-1148 (1998) [Summary] [Full text]	Cooperation Through Image Scoring in Humans Claus Wedekind and Manfred Milinski Science 288, 850-852 (2000) [Abstract] [Full text] Privatizing the University--the New Tragedy of the Commons James Robert Brown Science 290, 1701-1702 (2000) [Summary] [Full text] Volunteering as Red Queen Mechanism for Cooperation in Public Goods Games Christoph Hauert et al. Science 296, 1129-1132 (2002) [Abstract] [Full text]

Selected Other Web Resources

In the following sections, we offer a small selection of links to Internet resources bearing on the themes of this special issue.

Common Pool Resources, Sustainability, and Law

The Drama of the Commons (2002): Recent book from the National Resource Council's Committee on the Human Dimensions of Global Change reviews work in recent decades on human-environment interactions, and explores the challenges in devising workable systems for managing shared resources.

Our Common Journey (1999): Another NRC volume (from the Council's Policy Division), this book analyzes possible future development pathways and their implications for sustainability.

International Association for the Study of Common Property (IASCP): Indiana University-based organization focusing on "understanding and improving institutions for the management of environmental resources that are (or could be) held or used collectively."

Virtual Library of Common Property and Common Pool Resources,: Collection of bibliographies, papers, full-text resources, and other links, from the IASCP.

The Digital Library of the Commons: Nicely arranged, searchable library of full-text resources on commons research, from the IASCP.

AAAS Atlas of Population and Environment: Free online version of comprehensive reference on geographic relationships between population and environment.

Millennium Development Goals: Series of targets developed to implement the United Nations Millennium Declaration; site includes a node on ensuring environmental sustainability, one of the MDGs.

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Another U.N. effort, with the goal of "strengthening capacity to manage ecosystems sustainably for human well-being."

Human Development Reports: Extremely useful database of reports on worldwide development from the U.N. Development Programme.

ECOLEX: Comprehensive source of information on global environmental law. A joint project of the U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization, the World Conservation Union, and the U.N. Environment Programme.

World Conservation Union Enivonmental Law Programme: Inclues a wealth of information on global environmental conventions, laws, and related developments.

Other Links on Population, Environment, and Sustainability

Links to additional Web sites and articles related to environmental resources and their management can be found in the Web resources pages associated with the eight special Viewpoint articles in Science's "State of the Planet" series (14 November to 5 December issues). Follow the links below for Web resources on: