Note to users. If you're seeing this message, it means that your browser cannot find this page's style/presentation instructions -- or possibly that you are using a browser that does not support current Web standards. Find out more about why this message is appearing, and what you can do to make your experience of our site the best it can be.

Originally published in Science Express on 29 August 2002
Science 20 September 2002:
Vol. 297. no. 5589, pp. 2048 - 2051
DOI: 10.1126/science.1073163
Prev | Table of Contents | Next

Reports

Macrophage Apoptosis by Anthrax Lethal Factor Through p38 MAP Kinase Inhibition

Jin Mo Park, Florian R. Greten, Zhi-Wei Li, Michael Karin

The bacterium Bacillus anthracis causes the death of macrophages, which may allow it to avoid detection by the innate immune system. We found that B. anthracis lethal factor (LF) selectively induces apoptosis of activated macrophages by cleaving the amino-terminal extension of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) kinases (MKKs) that activate p38 MAPKs. Because macrophages that are deficient in transcription factor nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappa B) are also sensitive to activation-induced death and p38 is required for expression of certain NF-kappa B target genes, p38 is probably essential for synergistic induction of those NF-kappa B target genes that prevent apoptosis of activated macrophages. This dismantling of the p38 MAPK module represents a strategy used by B. anthracis to paralyze host innate immunity.

Read the Full Text


THIS ARTICLE HAS BEEN CITED BY OTHER ARTICLES:
Resistance of Human Alveolar Macrophages to Bacillus anthracis Lethal Toxin.
W. Wu, H. Mehta, K. Chakrabarty, J. L. Booth, E. S. Duggan, K. B. Patel, J. D. Ballard, K. M. Coggeshall, and J. P. Metcalf (2009)
J. Immunol. 183, 5799-5806
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Nod1/Nod2-Mediated Recognition Plays a Critical Role in Induction of Adaptive Immunity to Anthrax after Aerosol Exposure.
C. L. Loving, M. Osorio, Y.-G. Kim, G. Nunez, M. A. Hughes, and T. J. Merkel (2009)
Infect. Immun. 77, 4529-4537
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Crystal Structure of Bacillus anthracis Transpeptidase Enzyme CapD.
R. Wu, S. Richter, R.-g. Zhang, V. J. Anderson, D. Missiakas, and A. Joachimiak (2009)
J. Biol. Chem. 284, 24406-24414
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Reduced Expression of CD45 Protein-tyrosine Phosphatase Provides Protection against Anthrax Pathogenesis.
R. G. Panchal, R. L. Ulrich, S. B. Bradfute, D. Lane, G. Ruthel, T. A. Kenny, P. L. Iversen, A. O. Anderson, R. Gussio, W. C. Raschke, et al. (2009)
J. Biol. Chem. 284, 12874-12885
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Anthrax Edema Toxin Induces Maturation of Dendritic Cells and Enhances Chemotaxis towards Macrophage Inflammatory Protein 3{beta}.
F. J. Maldonado-Arocho and K. A. Bradley (2009)
Infect. Immun. 77, 2036-2042
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Anthrax Protective Antigen Delivered by Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhi Ty21a Protects Mice from a Lethal Anthrax Spore Challenge.
M. Osorio, Y. Wu, S. Singh, T. J. Merkel, S. Bhattacharyya, M. S. Blake, and D. J. Kopecko (2009)
Infect. Immun. 77, 1475-1482
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Inactivation of Rho GTPases by Statins Attenuates Anthrax Lethal Toxin Activity.
A. M. deCathelineau and G. M. Bokoch (2009)
Infect. Immun. 77, 348-359
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Toxoplasma gondii Prevents Chromatin Remodeling Initiated by TLR-Triggered Macrophage Activation.
J. Leng, B. A. Butcher, C. E. Egan, D. S. Abi Abdallah, and E. Y. Denkers (2009)
J. Immunol. 182, 489-497
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Role of microglial IKK{beta} in kainic acid-induced hippocampal neuronal cell death.
I.-H. Cho, J. Hong, E. C. Suh, J. H. Kim, H. Lee, J. E. Lee, S. Lee, C.-H. Kim, D. W. Kim, E.-K. Jo, et al. (2008)
Brain 131, 3019-3033
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Toxoplasma gondii Rhoptry Discharge Correlates with Activation of the Early Growth Response 2 Host Cell Transcription Factor.
E. D. Phelps, K. R. Sweeney, and I. J. Blader (2008)
Infect. Immun. 76, 4703-4712
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Differential roles of p38-MAPK and JNKs in mediating early protection or apoptosis in the hyperthermic perfused amphibian heart.
C. Gaitanaki, M. Mastri, I.-K. S. Aggeli, and I. Beis (2008)
J. Exp. Biol. 211, 2524-2532
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Modulation of Gene Expression via Disruption of NF-{kappa}B Signaling by a Bacterial Small Molecule.
V. V. Kravchenko, G. F. Kaufmann, J. C. Mathison, D. A. Scott, A. Z. Katz, D. C. Grauer, M. Lehmann, M. M. Meijler, K. D. Janda, and R. J. Ulevitch (2008)
Science 321, 259-263
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
A NOD2-NALP1 complex mediates caspase-1-dependent IL-1{beta} secretion in response to Bacillus anthracis infection and muramyl dipeptide.
L.-C. Hsu, S. R. Ali, S. McGillivray, P.-H. Tseng, S. Mariathasan, E. W. Humke, L. Eckmann, J. J. Powell, V. Nizet, V. M. Dixit, et al. (2008)
PNAS 105, 7803-7808
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Anamnestic Protective Immunity to Bacillus anthracis Is Antibody Mediated but Independent of Complement and Fc Receptors.
E. T. Harvill, M. Osorio, C. L. Loving, G. M. Lee, V. K. Kelly, and T. J. Merkel (2008)
Infect. Immun. 76, 2177-2182
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
From the Cover: Antiinflammatory cAMP signaling and cell migration genes co-opted by the anthrax bacillus.
C. Kim, S. Wilcox-Adelman, Y. Sano, W.-J. Tang, R. J. Collier, and J. M. Park (2008)
PNAS 105, 6150-6155
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
IFN-{beta} Increases Listeriolysin O-Induced Membrane Permeabilization and Death of Macrophages.
H. Zwaferink, S. Stockinger, P. Hazemi, R. Lemmens-Gruber, and T. Decker (2008)
J. Immunol. 180, 4116-4123
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Anthrax Lethal Toxin Increases Superoxide Production in Murine Neutrophils via Differential Effects on MAPK Signaling Pathways.
L. Xu, H. Fang, and D. M. Frucht (2008)
J. Immunol. 180, 4139-4147
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
The Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase/Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Pathway Induces the Inflammatory Factor Interleukin-8 following Chlamydia trachomatis Infection.
K. R. Buchholz and R. S. Stephens (2007)
Infect. Immun. 75, 5924-5929
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
C/EBP phosphorylation rescues macrophage dysfunction and apoptosis induced by anthrax lethal toxin.
M. Buck and M. Chojkier (2007)
Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 293, C1788-C1796
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Noncapsulated Toxinogenic Bacillus anthracis Presents a Specific Growth and Dissemination Pattern in Naive and Protective Antigen-Immune Mice.
I. J. Glomski, J.-P. Corre, M. Mock, and P. L. Goossens (2007)
Infect. Immun. 75, 4754-4761
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Liver X Receptor Activation Potentiates the Lipopolysaccharide Response in Human Macrophages.
C. Fontaine, E. Rigamonti, A. Nohara, P. Gervois, E. Teissier, J.-C. Fruchart, B. Staels, and G. Chinetti-Gbaguidi (2007)
Circ. Res. 101, 40-49
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Role of Bacillus anthracis Spore Structures in Macrophage Cytokine Responses.
S. Basu, T. J. Kang, W. H. Chen, M. J. Fenton, L. Baillie, S. Hibbs, and A. S. Cross (2007)
Infect. Immun. 75, 2351-2358
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Murine Innate Immune Response to Virulent Toxigenic and Nontoxigenic Bacillus anthracis Strains.
M. Drysdale, G. Olson, T. M. Koehler, M. F. Lipscomb, and C. R. Lyons (2007)
Infect. Immun. 75, 1757-1764
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
TLR4-Mediated Survival of Macrophages Is MyD88 Dependent and Requires TNF-{alpha} Autocrine Signalling.
E. Lombardo, A. Alvarez-Barrientos, B. Maroto, L. Bosca, and U. G. Knaus (2007)
J. Immunol. 178, 3731-3739
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Clostridium sordellii Lethal Toxin Kills Mice by Inducing a Major Increase in Lung Vascular Permeability.
B. Geny, H. Khun, C. Fitting, L. Zarantonelli, C. Mazuet, N. Cayet, M. Szatanik, M.-C. Prevost, J.-M. Cavaillon, M. Huerre, et al. (2007)
Am. J. Pathol. 170, 1003-1017
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
The Phosphothreonine Lyase Activity of a Bacterial Type III Effector Family.
H. Li, H. Xu, Y. Zhou, J. Zhang, C. Long, S. Li, S. Chen, J.-M. Zhou, and F. Shao (2007)
Science 315, 1000-1003
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Bacillus anthracis Spores Stimulate Cytokine and Chemokine Innate Immune Responses in Human Alveolar Macrophages through Multiple Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Pathways..
K. Chakrabarty, W. Wu, J. L. Booth, E. S. Duggan, K. M. Coggeshall, and J. P. Metcalf (2006)
Infect. Immun. 74, 4430-4438
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Autophagy Contributes to Caspase-independent Macrophage Cell Death.
Y. Xu, S. O. Kim, Y. Li, and J. Han (2006)
J. Biol. Chem. 281, 19179-19187
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Inaugural Article: Loss of hepatic NF-{kappa}B activity enhances chemical hepatocarcinogenesis through sustained c-Jun N-terminal kinase 1 activation.
T. Sakurai, S. Maeda, L. Chang, and M. Karin (2006)
PNAS 103, 10544-10551
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Gadd45a and Gadd45b Protect Hematopoietic Cells from UV-induced Apoptosis via Distinct Signaling Pathways, including p38 Activation and JNK Inhibition.
M. Gupta, S. K. Gupta, B. Hoffman, and D. A. Liebermann (2006)
J. Biol. Chem. 281, 17552-17558
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Bacillus anthracis Toxins Inhibit Human Neutrophil NADPH Oxidase Activity..
M. A. Crawford, C. V. Aylott, R. W. Bourdeau, and G. M. Bokoch (2006)
J. Immunol. 176, 7557-7565
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
The Potential of Adiponectin in Driving Arthritis.
A. Ehling, A. Schaffler, H. Herfarth, I. H. Tarner, S. Anders, O. Distler, G. Paul, J. Distler, S. Gay, J. Scholmerich, et al. (2006)
J. Immunol. 176, 4468-4478
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Mediates the Fas-Induced Mitochondrial Death Pathway in CD8+ T Cells..
N. Farley, G. Pedraza-Alva, D. Serrano-Gomez, V. Nagaleekar, A. Aronshtam, T. Krahl, T. Thornton, and M. Rincon (2006)
Mol. Cell. Biol. 26, 2118-2129
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
From The Cover: Anthrax lethal factor and edema factor act on conserved targets in Drosophila.
A. Guichard, J. M. Park, B. Cruz-Moreno, M. Karin, and E. Bier (2006)
PNAS 103, 3244-3249
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Flagellin/TLR5 responses in epithelia reveal intertwined activation of inflammatory and apoptotic pathways.
H. Zeng, H. Wu, V. Sloane, R. Jones, Y. Yu, P. Lin, A. T. Gewirtz, and A. S. Neish (2006)
Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 290, G96-G108
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Direct Inhibition of T-Lymphocyte Activation by Anthrax Toxins In Vivo.
J. E. Comer, A. K. Chopra, J. W. Peterson, and R. Konig (2005)
Infect. Immun. 73, 8275-8281
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Acute thermal stress and various heavy metals induce tissue-specific pro- or anti-apoptotic events via the p38-MAPK signal transduction pathway in Mytilus galloprovincialis (Lam.).
E. Kefaloyianni, E. Gourgou, V. Ferle, E. Kotsakis, C. Gaitanaki, and I. Beis (2005)
J. Exp. Biol. 208, 4427-4436
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
In Vivo Protective Role of Human Group IIA Phospholipase A2 against Experimental Anthrax.
A. Piris-Gimenez, M. Paya, G. Lambeau, M. Chignard, M. Mock, L. Touqui, and P. L. Goossens (2005)
J. Immunol. 175, 6786-6791
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Murine Macrophages Kill the Vegetative Form of Bacillus anthracis.
T. J. Kang, M. J. Fenton, M. A. Weiner, S. Hibbs, S. Basu, L. Baillie, and A. S. Cross (2005)
Infect. Immun. 73, 7495-7501
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Inflammation-activated Protein Kinases as Targets for Drug Development.
M. Karin (2005)
Proceedings of the ATS 2, 386-390
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Ablation of MEKK4 Kinase Activity Causes Neurulation and Skeletal Patterning Defects in the Mouse Embryo.
A. N. Abell, J. A. Rivera-Perez, B. D. Cuevas, M. T. Uhlik, S. Sather, N. L. Johnson, S. K. Minton, J. M. Lauder, A. M. Winter-Vann, K. Nakamura, et al. (2005)
Mol. Cell. Biol. 25, 8948-8959
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Receptor-specific requirements for anthrax toxin delivery into cells.
G. J. A. Rainey, D. J. Wigelsworth, P. L. Ryan, H. M. Scobie, R. J. Collier, and J. A. T. Young (2005)
PNAS 102, 13278-13283
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Essential Role of STAT1 in Caspase-Independent Cell Death of Activated Macrophages through the p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase/STAT1/Reactive Oxygen Species Pathway.
H. S. Kim and M.-S. Lee (2005)
Mol. Cell. Biol. 25, 6821-6833
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Efficient synthetic inhibitors of anthrax lethal factor.
M. Forino, S. Johnson, T. Y. Wong, D. V. Rozanov, A. Y. Savinov, W. Li, R. Fattorusso, B. Becattini, A. J. Orry, D. Jung, et al. (2005)
PNAS 102, 9499-9504
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Endocrine Perturbation Increases Susceptibility of Mice to Anthrax Lethal Toxin.
M. Moayeri, J. I. Webster, J. F. Wiggins, S. H. Leppla, and E. M. Sternberg (2005)
Infect. Immun. 73, 4238-4244
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Inhibition of MAPK and NF-{kappa}B Pathways Is Necessary for Rapid Apoptosis in Macrophages Infected with Yersinia.
Y. Zhang, A. T. Ting, K. B. Marcu, and J. B. Bliska (2005)
J. Immunol. 174, 7939-7949
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Phosphatidylinositol-Specific Phospholipase C of Bacillus anthracis Down-Modulates the Immune Response.
L. A. Zenewicz, Z. Wei, H. Goldfine, and H. Shen (2005)
J. Immunol. 174, 8011-8016
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
I{kappa}B kinase (IKK){beta}, but not IKK{alpha}, is a critical mediator of osteoclast survival and is required for inflammation-induced bone loss.
M. G. Ruocco, S. Maeda, J. M. Park, T. Lawrence, L.-C. Hsu, Y. Cao, G. Schett, E. F. Wagner, and M. Karin (2005)
J. Exp. Med. 201, 1677-1687
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Anthrax Edema Toxin Cooperates with Lethal Toxin to Impair Cytokine Secretion during Infection of Dendritic Cells.
J.-N. Tournier, A. Quesnel-Hellmann, J. Mathieu, C. Montecucco, W.-J. Tang, M. Mock, D. R. Vidal, and P. L. Goossens (2005)
J. Immunol. 174, 4934-4941
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Anthrax Lethal Toxin Blocks MAPK Kinase-Dependent IL-2 Production in CD4+ T Cells.
H. Fang, R. Cordoba-Rodriguez, C. S. R. Lankford, and D. M. Frucht (2005)
J. Immunol. 174, 4966-4971
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Human {alpha}-defensins neutralize anthrax lethal toxin and protect against its fatal consequences.
C. Kim, N. Gajendran, H.-W. Mittrucker, M. Weiwad, Y.-H. Song, R. Hurwitz, M. Wilmanns, G. Fischer, and S. H. E. Kaufmann (2005)
PNAS 102, 4830-4835
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Purified Bacillus anthracis Lethal Toxin Complex Formed in Vitro and during Infection Exhibits Functional and Biological Activity.
R. G. Panchal, K. M. Halverson, W. Ribot, D. Lane, T. Kenny, T. G. Abshire, J. W. Ezzell, T. A. Hoover, B. Powell, S. Little, et al. (2005)
J. Biol. Chem. 280, 10834-10839
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Bacterial toxins and the immune system: show me the in vivo targets.
J. E. Galan (2005)
J. Exp. Med. 201, 321-323
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Anthrax toxins suppress T lymphocyte activation by disrupting antigen receptor signaling.
S. R. Paccani, F. Tonello, R. Ghittoni, M. Natale, L. Muraro, M. M. D'Elios, W.-J. Tang, C. Montecucco, and C. T. Baldari (2005)
J. Exp. Med. 201, 325-331
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Murine Macrophage Transcriptional Responses to Bacillus anthracis Infection and Intoxication.
N. H. Bergman, K. D. Passalacqua, R. Gaspard, L. M. Shetron-Rama, J. Quackenbush, and P. C. Hanna (2005)
Infect. Immun. 73, 1069-1080
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Activation of liver X receptors and retinoid X receptors prevents bacterial-induced macrophage apoptosis.
A. F. Valledor, L.-C. Hsu, S. Ogawa, D. Sawka-Verhelle, M. Karin, and C. K. Glass (2004)
PNAS 101, 17813-17818
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Anthrolysin O and Other Gram-positive Cytolysins Are Toll-like Receptor 4 Agonists.
J. M. Park, V. H. Ng, S. Maeda, R. F. Rest, and M. Karin (2004)
J. Exp. Med. 200, 1647-1655
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Rabbit and Nonhuman Primate Models of Toxin-Targeting Human Anthrax Vaccines.
A. J. Phipps, C. Premanandan, R. E. Barnewall, and M. D. Lairmore (2004)
Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 68, 617-629
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Mitogen activated protein kinases as targets for development of novel anti-inflammatory drugs.
M Karin (2004)
Ann Rheum Dis 63, ii62-ii64
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Binary Bacterial Toxins: Biochemistry, Biology, and Applications of Common Clostridium and Bacillus Proteins.
H. Barth, K. Aktories, M. R. Popoff, and B. G. Stiles (2004)
Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 68, 373-402
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Membrane insertion of anthrax protective antigen and cytoplasmic delivery of lethal factor occur at different stages of the endocytic pathway.
L. Abrami, M. Lindsay, R. G. Parton, S. H. Leppla, and F. G. van der Goot (2004)
J. Cell Biol. 166, 645-651
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Mouse Susceptibility to Anthrax Lethal Toxin Is Influenced by Genetic Factors in Addition to Those Controlling Macrophage Sensitivity.
M. Moayeri, N. W. Martinez, J. Wiggins, H. A. Young, and S. H. Leppla (2004)
Infect. Immun. 72, 4439-4447
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Enhancement of Anthrax Lethal Toxin Cytotoxicity: a Subset of Monoclonal Antibodies against Protective Antigen Increases Lethal Toxin-Mediated Killing of Murine Macrophages.
N. Mohamed, J. Li, C. S. Ferreira, S. F. Little, A. M. Friedlander, G. L. Spitalny, and L. S. Casey (2004)
Infect. Immun. 72, 3276-3283
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Anthrax Lethal Toxin Rapidly Activates Caspase-1/ICE and Induces Extracellular Release of Interleukin (IL)-1{beta} and IL-18.
R. Cordoba-Rodriguez, H. Fang, C. S. R. Lankford, and D. M. Frucht (2004)
J. Biol. Chem. 279, 20563-20566
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Crystal structure of the von Willebrand factor A domain of human capillary morphogenesis protein 2: An anthrax toxin receptor.
D. B. Lacy, D. J. Wigelsworth, H. M. Scobie, J. A. T. Young, and R. J. Collier (2004)
PNAS 101, 6367-6372
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Selective inhibition of anthrax edema factor by adefovir, a drug for chronic hepatitis B virus infection.
Y. Shen, N. L. Zhukovskaya, M. I. Zimmer, S. Soelaiman, P. Bergson, C.-R. Wang, C. S. Gibbs, and W.-J. Tang (2004)
PNAS 101, 3242-3247
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
p38{alpha} Mitogen-activated Protein Kinase Sensitizes Cells to Apoptosis Induced by Different Stimuli.
A. Porras, S. Zuluaga, E. Black, A. Valladares, A. M. Alvarez, C. Ambrosino, M. Benito, and A. R. Nebreda (2004)
Mol. Biol. Cell 15, 922-933
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Anthrax Lethal Toxin Induces Human Endothelial Cell Apoptosis.
J. E. Kirby (2004)
Infect. Immun. 72, 430-439
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Binding of Anthrax Toxin to Its Receptor Is Similar to {alpha} Integrin-Ligand Interactions.
K. A. Bradley, J. Mogridge, G. Jonah, A. Rainey, S. Batty, and J. A. T. Young (2003)
J. Biol. Chem. 278, 49342-49347
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Cutting Edge: Different Toll-Like Receptor Agonists Instruct Dendritic Cells to Induce Distinct Th Responses via Differential Modulation of Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase-Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase and c-Fos.
S. Agrawal, A. Agrawal, B. Doughty, A. Gerwitz, J. Blenis, T. Van Dyke, and B. Pulendran (2003)
J. Immunol. 171, 4984-4989
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
The Metalloproteolytic Activity of the Anthrax Lethal Factor Is Substrate-inhibited.
F. Tonello, P. Ascenzi, and C. Montecucco (2003)
J. Biol. Chem. 278, 40075-40078
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
A dually active anthrax vaccine that confers protection against both bacilli and toxins.
G.-E. Rhie, M. H. Roehrl, M. Mourez, R. J. Collier, J. J. Mekalanos, and J. Y. Wang (2003)
PNAS 100, 10925-10930
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
The KDEL Receptor Modulates the Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Response through Mitogen-activated Protein Kinase Signaling Cascades.
K. Yamamoto, H. Hamada, H. Shinkai, Y. Kohno, H. Koseki, and T. Aoe (2003)
J. Biol. Chem. 278, 34525-34532
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
A Docking Site in MKK4 Mediates High Affinity Binding to JNK MAPKs and Competes with Similar Docking Sites in JNK Substrates.
D. T. Ho, A. J. Bardwell, M. Abdollahi, and L. Bardwell (2003)
J. Biol. Chem. 278, 32662-32672
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Shrinking the Biologic World--Nanobiotechnologies for Toxicology.
T. J. Zieziulewicz, D. W. Unfricht, N. Hadjout, M. A. Lynes, and D. A. Lawrence (2003)
Toxicol. Sci. 74, 235-244
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Structure-based Inhibitor Discovery against Adenylyl Cyclase Toxins from Pathogenic Bacteria That Cause Anthrax and Whooping Cough.
S. Soelaiman, B. Q. Wei, P. Bergson, Y.-S. Lee, Y. Shen, M. Mrksich, B. K. Shoichet, and W.-J. Tang (2003)
J. Biol. Chem. 278, 25990-25997
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Anthrax lethal factor represses glucocorticoid and progesterone receptor activity.
J. I. Webster, L. H. Tonelli, M. Moayeri, S. S. Simons Jr., S. H. Leppla, and E. M. Sternberg (2003)
PNAS 100, 5706-5711
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Sensitizing Anthrax Lethal Toxin-resistant Macrophages to Lethal Toxin-induced Killing by Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha.
S. O. Kim, Q. Jing, K. Hoebe, B. Beutler, N. S. Duesbery, and J. Han (2003)
J. Biol. Chem. 278, 7413-7421
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »


To Advertise     Find Products

Science. ISSN 0036-8075 (print), 1095-9203 (online)