Note to users. If you're seeing this message, it means that your browser cannot find this page's style/presentation instructions -- or possibly that you are using a browser that does not support current Web standards. Find out more about why this message is appearing, and what you can do to make your experience of our site the best it can be.
Invitrogen

Site Tools

  • AAAS
  • Subscribe
  • Feedback

Site Search

Search Advanced

Science 19 April 2002:
Vol. 296. no. 5567, pp. 490 - 494
DOI: 10.1126/science.296.5567.490
Prev | Table of Contents | Next

Review

Allergy, Parasites, and the Hygiene Hypothesis

Maria Yazdanbakhsh,1* Peter G. Kremsner,23 Ronald van Ree4

The increase of allergic diseases in the industrialized world has often been explained by a decline in infections during childhood. The immunological explanation has been put into the context of the functional T cell subsets known as T helper 1 (TH1) and T helper 2 (TH2) that display polarized cytokine profiles. It has been argued that bacterial and viral infections during early life direct the maturing immune system toward TH1, which counterbalance proallergic responses of TH2 cells. Thus, a reduction in the overall microbial burden will result in weak TH1 imprinting and unrestrained TH2 responses that allow an increase in allergy. This notion is contradicted by observations that the prevalence of TH1-autoimmune diseases is also increasing and that TH2-skewed parasitic worm (helminth) infections are not associated with allergy. More recently, elevations of anti-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-10, that occur during long-term helminth infections have been shown to be inversely correlated with allergy. The induction of a robust anti-inflammatory regulatory network by persistent immune challenge offers a unifying explanation for the observed inverse association of many infections with allergic disorders.

1 Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands.
2 Department of Parasitology, Institute for Tropical Medicine, University of Tuebingen, Germany.
3 Research Unit, Albert Schweitzer Hospital, Lambarene, Gabon.
4 Department of Immunopathology, Sanquin Research at CLB, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
*   To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: M.Yazdanbakhsh{at}LUMC.NL

Read the Full Text


THIS ARTICLE HAS BEEN CITED BY OTHER ARTICLES:
Measles-Mumps-Rubella Vaccination and Asthma-like Disease in Early Childhood.
A. Hviid and M. Melbye (2008)
Am. J. Epidemiol.
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Antibody Responses and Resistance against Ascaris lumbricoides Infection among Venezuelan Rural Children: The Influence of Ethnicity.
I. Hagel, M. Cabrera, E. Buvat, L. Gutierrez, C. Santaella, R. Borges, B. Infante, M. C. Salas, and Y. Barrios (2008)
J Trop Pediatr 54, 354-356
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Colonization with Heligmosomoides polygyrus Suppresses Mucosal IL-17 Production.
D. E. Elliott, A. Metwali, J. Leung, T. Setiawan, A. M. Blum, M. N. Ince, L. E. Bazzone, M. J. Stadecker, J. F. Urban Jr., and J. V. Weinstock (2008)
J. Immunol. 181, 2414-2419
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Colloquium Paper: Homage to Linnaeus: How many parasites? How many hosts?.
A. Dobson, K. D. Lafferty, A. M. Kuris, R. F. Hechinger, and W. Jetz (2008)
PNAS 105, 11482-11489
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Hookworm-Induced Persistent Changes to the Immunological Environment of the Lung.
J. J. Reece, M. C. Siracusa, T. L. Southard, C. F. Brayton, J. F. Urban Jr., and A. L. Scott (2008)
Infect. Immun. 76, 3511-3524
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Regulatory role of B-1 B cells in chronic colitis.
Y. Shimomura, E. Mizoguchi, K. Sugimoto, R. Kibe, Y. Benno, A. Mizoguchi, and A. K. Bhan (2008)
Int. Immunol. 20, 729-737
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Fecal Secretory Immunoglobulin A Is Increased in Healthy Infants Who Receive a Formula with Short-Chain Galacto-Oligosaccharides and Long-Chain Fructo-Oligosaccharides.
P. A. M. J. Scholtens, P. Alliet, M. Raes, M. S. Alles, H. Kroes, G. Boehm, L. M. J. Knippels, J. Knol, and Y. Vandenplas (2008)
J. Nutr. 138, 1141-1147
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
A Helminth Immunomodulator Reduces Allergic and Inflammatory Responses by Induction of IL-10-Producing Macrophages.
C. Schnoeller, S. Rausch, S. Pillai, A. Avagyan, B. M. Wittig, C. Loddenkemper, A. Hamann, E. Hamelmann, R. Lucius, and S. Hartmann (2008)
J. Immunol. 180, 4265-4272
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Helminth Infection with Litomosoides sigmodontis Induces Regulatory T Cells and Inhibits Allergic Sensitization, Airway Inflammation, and Hyperreactivity in a Murine Asthma Model.
A. M. Dittrich, A. Erbacher, S. Specht, F. Diesner, M. Krokowski, A. Avagyan, P. Stock, B. Ahrens, W. H. Hoffmann, A. Hoerauf, et al. (2008)
J. Immunol. 180, 1792-1799
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Is Childhood Vaccination Associated With Asthma? A Meta-analysis of Observational Studies.
R. D. Balicer, I. Grotto, M. Mimouni, and D. Mimouni (2007)
Pediatrics 120, e1269-e1277
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Alternatively Activated Macrophages in Intestinal Helminth Infection: Effects on Concurrent Bacterial Colitis.
M. Weng, D. Huntley, I-F. Huang, O. Foye-Jackson, L. Wang, A. Sarkissian, Q. Zhou, W. A. Walker, B. J. Cherayil, and H. N. Shi (2007)
J. Immunol. 179, 4721-4731
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Heligmosomoides polygyrus Promotes Regulatory T-Cell Cytokine Production in the Murine Normal Distal Intestine.
T. Setiawan, A. Metwali, A. M. Blum, M. N. Ince, J. F. Urban Jr., D. E. Elliott, and J. V. Weinstock (2007)
Infect. Immun. 75, 4655-4663
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Contact With Farm Animals in Early Life and Juvenile Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Case-Control Study.
K. Radon, D. Windstetter, A. L. Poluda, B. Mueller, E. v. Mutius, S. Koletzko, and Chronische Autoimmunerkrankungen und Kontakt zu Ti (2007)
Pediatrics 120, 354-361
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Eat Dirt: CpG DNA and Immunomodulation of Asthma.
J. N. Kline (2007)
Proceedings of the ATS 4, 283-288
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
IL-5-Induced Hypereosinophilia Suppresses the Antigen-Induced Immune Response via a TGF-beta-Dependent Mechanism.
K. Nakagome, M. Dohi, K. Okunishi, R. Tanaka, T. Kouro, M. R. Kano, K. Miyazono, J.-i. Miyazaki, K. Takatsu, and K. Yamamoto (2007)
J. Immunol. 179, 284-294
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Exposure to the Immunosuppresant, Perfluorooctanoic Acid, Enhances the Murine IgE and Airway Hyperreactivity Response to Ovalbumin.
K. J. Fairley, R. Purdy, S. Kearns, S. E. Anderson, and B. Meade (2007)
Toxicol. Sci. 97, 375-383
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
AN INVERSE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AUTOIMMUNE LIVER DISEASES AND STRONGYLOIDES STERCORALIS INFECTION.
H. AOYAMA, T. HIRATA, H. SAKUGAWA, T. WATANABE, S. MIYAGI, T. MAESHIRO, T. CHINEN, M. KAWANE, O. ZAHA, T. NAKAYOSHI, et al. (2007)
Am J Trop Med Hyg 76, 972-976
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Bottle Feeding and Exposure to Toxocara as Risk Factors for Wheezing Illness among Under-five Amazonian Children: A Population-based Cross-sectional Study.
M. U. Ferreira, G. Rubinsky-Elefant, T. G. de Castro, E. H. E. Hoffmann, M. da Silva-Nunes, M. A. Cardoso, and P. T. Muniz (2007)
J Trop Pediatr 53, 119-124
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Fever-Like Hyperthermia Controls T Lymphocyte Persistence by Inducing Degradation of Cellular FLIPshort.
A. Meinander, T. S. Soderstrom, A. Kaunisto, M. Poukkula, L. Sistonen, and J. E. Eriksson (2007)
J. Immunol. 178, 3944-3953
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Prevention of experimental colitis by parenteral administration of a pathogen-derived immunomodulatory molecule.
H. Braat, P. McGuirk, F. J W Ten Kate, I. Huibregtse, P. J Dunne, D. W Hommes, S. J H Van Deventer, and K. H G Mills (2007)
Gut 56, 351-357
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Multilocus analysis of atopy in Korean children using multifactor-dimensionality reduction.
H.-W. Park, E.-S. Shin, J.-E. Lee, H.-S. Kwon, E. Chun, S.-S. Kim, Y.-S. Chang, Y.-K. Kim, K.-U. Min, Y.-Y. Kim, et al. (2007)
Thorax 62, 265-269
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Human allergy and geohelminth infections: a review of the literature and a proposed conceptual model to guide the investigation of possible causal associations.
P. J. Cooper, M. L. Barreto, and L. C. Rodrigues (2007)
Br. Med. Bull.
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Inhibition of Autoimmune Type 1 Diabetes by Gastrointestinal Helminth Infection.
K. A. Saunders, T. Raine, A. Cooke, and C. E. Lawrence (2007)
Infect. Immun. 75, 397-407
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Ascaris suum-Derived Products Suppress Mucosal Allergic Inflammation in an Interleukin-10-Independent Manner via Interference with Dendritic Cell Function.
B. W. McConchie, H. H. Norris, V. G. Bundoc, S. Trivedi, A. Boesen, J. F. Urban Jr., and A. M. Keane-Myers (2006)
Infect. Immun. 74, 6632-6641
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Daily Intake of Heat-Killed Lactobacillus plantarum L-137 Augments Acquired Immunity in Healthy Adults.
Y. Hirose, S. Murosaki, Y. Yamamoto, Y. Yoshikai, and T. Tsuru (2006)
J. Nutr. 136, 3069-3073
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
DOSE-RANGING STUDY FOR TRIALS OF THERAPEUTIC INFECTION WITH NECATOR AMERICANUS IN HUMANS.
K. MORTIMER, A. BROWN, J. FEARY, C. JAGGER, S. LEWIS, M. ANTONIAK, D. PRITCHARD, and J. BRITTON (2006)
Am J Trop Med Hyg 75, 914-920
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Innate Immune Responses to Lung-Stage Helminth Infection Induce Alternatively Activated Alveolar Macrophages.
J. J. Reece, M. C. Siracusa, and A. L. Scott (2006)
Infect. Immun. 74, 4970-4981
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Novel Effector Molecules in Type 2 Inflammation: Lessons Drawn from Helminth Infection and Allergy.
M. G. Nair, K. J. Guild, and D. Artis (2006)
J. Immunol. 177, 1393-1399
   Full Text »    PDF »
Intestinal Helminths Protect in a Murine Model of Asthma.
K. Kitagaki, T. R. Businga, D. Racila, D. E. Elliott, J. V. Weinstock, and J. N. Kline (2006)
J. Immunol. 177, 1628-1635
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Macrophage Reprogramming by Mycolic Acid Promotes a Tolerogenic Response in Experimental Asthma.
J. E. Korf, G. Pynaert, K. Tournoy, T. Boonefaes, A. Van Oosterhout, D. Ginneberge, A. Haegeman, J. A. Verschoor, P. De Baetselier, and J. Grooten (2006)
Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 174, 152-160
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
TLR4 Signaling Attenuates Ongoing Allergic Inflammation.
J. W. Hollingsworth, G. S. Whitehead, K. L. Lin, H. Nakano, M. D. Gunn, D. A. Schwartz, and D. N. Cook (2006)
J. Immunol. 176, 5856-5862
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
SCHISTOSOMA MANSONI, NEMATODE INFECTIONS, AND PROGRESSION TO ACTIVE TUBERCULOSIS AMONG HIV-1-INFECTED UGANDANS..
M. BROWN, G. MIIRO, P. NKURUNZIZA, C. WATERA, M. A. QUIGLEY, D. W. DUNNE, J. A. G. WHITWORTH, and A. M. ELLIOTT (2006)
Am J Trop Med Hyg 74, 819-825
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Naturally Occurring CD4+Foxp3+ Regulatory T Cells Are an Essential, IL-10-Independent Part of the Immunoregulatory Network in Schistosoma mansoni Egg-Induced Inflammation.
M. Baumgart, F. Tompkins, J. Leng, and M. Hesse (2006)
J. Immunol. 176, 5374-5387
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Asthma in Hispanics.
G. M. Hunninghake, S. T. Weiss, and J. C. Celedon (2006)
Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 173, 143-163
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Helminth-Modified Pulmonary Immune Response Protects Mice from Allergen-Induced Airway Hyperresponsiveness.
N. E. Mangan, N. van Rooijen, A. N. J. McKenzie, and P. G. Fallon (2006)
J. Immunol. 176, 138-147
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Helminth-Primed Dendritic Cells Alter the Host Response to Enteric Bacterial Infection.
C.-C. Chen, S. Louie, B. A. McCormick, W. A. Walker, and H. N. Shi (2006)
J. Immunol. 176, 472-483
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Cow milk is not responsible for most gastrointestinal immune-like syndromes--evidence from a population-based study.
L. Paajanen, R. Korpela, T. Tuure, J. Honkanen, I. Jarvela, J. Ilonen, M. Knip, O. Vaarala, and J. Kokkonen (2005)
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition 82, 1327-1335
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Cow's Milk Allergy: A Complex Disorder.
R. G. Crittenden and L. E. Bennett (2005)
J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 24, 582S-591S
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Suppression of allergic airway inflammation by helminth-induced regulatory T cells.
M. S. Wilson, M. D. Taylor, A. Balic, C. A.M. Finney, J. R. Lamb, and R. M. Maizels (2005)
J. Exp. Med. 202, 1199-1212
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Regulatory T-lymphocytes in asthma.
A. J. M. van Oosterhout and N. Bloksma (2005)
Eur. Respir. J. 26, 918-932
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Exposure to Farming Environments in Early Life and Type 1 Diabetes: A Case-Control Study.
K. Radon, D. Windstetter, S. Solfrank, E. von Mutius, D. Nowak, H.-P. Schwarz, and for the Chronic Autoimmune Disease and Contact to (2005)
Diabetes 54, 3212-3216
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
IL-12 and IL-10 Expression Synergize to Induce the Immune-Mediated Eradication of Established Colon and Mammary Tumors and Lung Metastasis.
M. V. Lopez, S. K. Adris, A. I. Bravo, Y. Chernajovsky, and O. L. Podhajcer (2005)
J. Immunol. 175, 5885-5894
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Insight into Graves' Hyperthyroidism from Animal Models.
S. M. McLachlan, Y. Nagayama, and B. Rapoport (2005)
Endocr. Rev. 26, 800-832
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Efficacy of Macrophage-activating Lipopeptide-2 Combined with Interferon-{gamma} in a Murine Asthma Model.
H. Weigt, C. Nassenstein, T. Tschernig, P. F. Muhlradt, N. Krug, and A. Braun (2005)
Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 172, 566-572
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Differential Modulation of Allergic Eye Disease by Chronic and Acute Ascaris Infection.
L. Schopf, S. Luccioli, V. Bundoc, P. Justice, C.-C. Chan, B. J. Wetzel, H. H. Norris, J. F. Urban Jr, and A. Keane-Myers (2005)
Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 46, 2772-2780
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
RISK OF INTESTINAL HELMINTH AND PROTOZOAN INFECTION IN A REFUGEE POPULATION.
P. K. GARG, S. PERRY, M. DORN, L. HARDCASTLE, and J. PARSONNET (2005)
Am J Trop Med Hyg 73, 386-391
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Saturation of Immunoglobulin E (IgE) Binding Sites by Polyclonal IgE Does Not Explain the Protective Effect of Helminth Infections against Atopy.
E. Mitre, S. Norwood, and T. B. Nutman (2005)
Infect. Immun. 73, 4106-4111
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Increased IgE but Reduced Th2-Type Inflammation in Vitamin D Receptor-Deficient Mice.
D. D'Ambrosio, M. T. Cantorna, A. August, Y. Zhu, and M. Froicu (2005)
J. Immunol. 174, 4451
   Full Text »    PDF »
Th1/Th2 paradigm: not seeing the forest for the trees?.
A. J. M. van Oosterhout and A. C. Motta (2005)
Eur. Respir. J. 25, 591-593
   Full Text »    PDF »
From the Cover: Helminth regulation of host IL-4R{alpha}/Stat6 signaling: Mechanism underlying NOS-2 inhibition by Trichinella spiralis.
K. Bian, M. Zhong, Y. Harari, M. Lai, N. Weisbrodt, and F. Murad (2005)
PNAS 102, 3936-3941
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Acellular Pertussis Vaccine Protects against Exacerbation of Allergic Asthma Due to Bordetella pertussis in a Murine Model.
D. P. Ennis, J. P. Cassidy, and B. P. Mahon (2005)
Clin. Vaccine Immunol. 12, 409-417
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Predictive value of anti-cell and anti-human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) humoral responses in HIV-1-exposed seronegative cohorts of European and Asian origin.
L. Lopalco, C. Barassi, C. Paolucci, D. Breda, D. Brunelli, M. Nguyen, J. Nouhin, T. T. Luong, L. X. Truong, M. Clerici, et al. (2005)
J. Gen. Virol. 86, 339-348
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Probiotics for atopic diseases.
(2005)
DTB 43, 6-8
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Will worms really cure Crohn's disease?.
G L Radford-Smith (2005)
Gut 54, 6-8
   Full Text »    PDF »
Influence of normal microbiota on some aspects of the immune response during experimental infection with Trypanosoma cruzi in mice.
R. Duarte, A. M. Silva, L. Q. Vieira, L. C. C. Afonso, and J. R. Nicoli (2004)
J. Med. Microbiol. 53, 741-748
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
CD25+CD4+ Cells Contribute to Th2 Polarization during Helminth Infection by Suppressing Th1 Response Development.
A. S. McKee and E. J. Pearce (2004)
J. Immunol. 173, 1224-1231
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
ASSOCIATION OF A SEX-RELATED DIFFERENCE OF STRONGYLOIDES STERCORALIS-SPECIFIC IgG4 ANTIBODY TITER WITH THE EFFICACY OF TREATMENT OF STRONGYLOIDIASIS.
M. SATOH, H. TOMA, S. KIYUNA, Y. SHIROMA, A. KOKAZE, and Y. SATO (2004)
Am J Trop Med Hyg 71, 107-111
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Allergen-responsive CD4+CD25+ Regulatory T Cells in Children who Have Outgrown Cow's Milk Allergy.
M. R. Karlsson, J. Rugtveit, and P. Brandtzaeg (2004)
J. Exp. Med. 199, 1679-1688
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
The Toll-Like Receptor-2/6 Agonist Macrophage-Activating Lipopeptide-2 Cooperates with IFN-{gamma} to Reverse the Th2 Skew in an In Vitro Allergy Model.
H. Weigt, P. F. Muhlradt, M. Larbig, N. Krug, and A. Braun (2004)
J. Immunol. 172, 6080-6086
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Pro-Th1 Cytokines Promote Fas-Dependent Apoptosis of Immature Peripheral Basophils.
E. Schneider, M.-B. Tonanny, M. Lisbonne, M. Leite-de-Moraes, and M. Dy (2004)
J. Immunol. 172, 5262-5268
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Th2 cells are less susceptible than Th1 cells to the suppressive activity of CD25+ regulatory thymocytes because of their responsiveness to different cytokines.
L. Cosmi, F. Liotta, R. Angeli, B. Mazzinghi, V. Santarlasci, R. Manetti, L. Lasagni, V. Vanini, P. Romagnani, E. Maggi, et al. (2004)
Blood 103, 3117-3121
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Helminth infection modulates the development of allergen-induced airway inflammation.
G. Wohlleben, C. Trujillo, J. Muller, Y. Ritze, S. Grunewald, U. Tatsch, and K. J. Erb (2004)
Int. Immunol. 16, 585-596
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Atopic dermatitis and the hygiene hypothesis: a case-control study.
S. Gibbs, H. Surridge, R. Adamson, B. Cohen, G. Bentham, and R. Reading (2004)
Int. J. Epidemiol. 33, 199-207
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Helminths and harmony.
J V Weinstock, R Summers, and D E Elliott (2004)
Gut 53, 7-9
   Full Text »
Lymphotoxin Is Required for Maintaining Physiological Levels of Serum IgE That Minimizes Th1-mediated Airway Inflammation.
H.-S. Kang, S. E. Blink, R. K. Chin, Y. Lee, O. Kim, J. Weinstock, T. Waldschmidt, D. Conrad, B. Chen, J. Solway, et al. (2003)
J. Exp. Med. 198, 1643-1652
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Gastric Helicobacter Infection Inhibits Development of Oral Tolerance to Food Antigens in Mice.
T. Matysiak-Budnik, G. van Niel, F. Megraud, K. Mayo, C. Bevilacqua, V. Gaboriau-Routhiau, M.-C. Moreau, and M. Heyman (2003)
Infect. Immun. 71, 5219-5224
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Prior History of Allergies and Pancreatic Cancer in the San Francisco Bay Area.
E. A. Holly, C. A. Eberle, and P. M. Bracci (2003)
Am. J. Epidemiol. 158, 432-441
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
The Slc11a1 (Nramp1) Gene Controls Efficacy of Mycobacterial Treatment of Allergic Asthma.
J. J. Smit, H. Van Loveren, M. O. Hoekstra, K. Karimi, G. Folkerts, and F. P. Nijkamp (2003)
J. Immunol. 171, 754-760
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Nitric Oxide Production and Mononuclear Cell Nitric Oxide Synthase Activity in Malaria-Tolerant Papuan Adults.
C. S. Boutlis, E. Tjitra, H. Maniboey, M. A. Misukonis, J. R. Saunders, S. Suprianto, J. B. Weinberg, and N. M. Anstey (2003)
Infect. Immun. 71, 3682-3689
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Immunostimulatory DNA for Asthma: Better than Eating Dirt.
E. S. Silverman and J. M. Drazen (2003)
Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 28, 645-647
   Full Text »    PDF »
Wheezing, Allergy, and Parasite Infection in Children in Urban and Rural Ethiopia.
D. Dagoye, Z. Bekele, K. Woldemichael, H. Nida, M. Yimam, A. Hall, A. J. Venn, J. R. Britton, R. Hubbard, and S. A. Lewis (2003)
Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 167, 1369-1373
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Breast Cancer, Birth Cohorts, and Epstein-Barr Virus: Methodological Issues in Exploring the "Hygiene Hypothesis" in Relation to Breast Cancer, Hodgkin's Disease, and Stomach Cancer.
N. Krieger, E. F. Strong, C. Makosky, and J. Weuve (2003)
Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 12, 405-411
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Changes in Pulmonary Function and Parasite Burden in Rats Infected with Strongyloides venezuelensis Concomitant with Induction of Allergic Airway Inflammation.
D. Negrao-Correa, M. R. Silveira, C. M. Borges, D. G. Souza, and M. M. Teixeira (2003)
Infect. Immun. 71, 2607-2614
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
A common IL-1 complex haplotype is associated with an increased risk of atopy.
T Pessi, J Karjalainen, J Hulkkonen, M M Nieminen, and M Hurme (2003)
J. Med. Genet. 40, e66-66
   Full Text »    PDF »
Addressing Parents' Concerns: Do Vaccines Cause Allergic or Autoimmune Diseases?.
P. A. Offit and C. J. Hackett (2003)
Pediatrics 111, 653-659
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Immunomodulation of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by helminth ova immunization.
D. Sewell, Z. Qing, E. Reinke, D. Elliot, J. Weinstock, M. Sandor, and Z. Fabry (2003)
Int. Immunol. 15, 59-69
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
A Novel Host-Parasite Lipid Cross-talk. SCHISTOSOMAL LYSO-PHOSPHATIDYLSERINE ACTIVATES TOLL-LIKE RECEPTOR 2 AND AFFECTS IMMUNE POLARIZATION.
D. van der Kleij, E. Latz, J. F. H. M. Brouwers, Y. C. M. Kruize, M. Schmitz, E. A. Kurt-Jones, T. Espevik, E. C. de Jong, M. L. Kapsenberg, D. T. Golenbock, et al. (2002)
J. Biol. Chem. 277, 48122-48129
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
An Enteric Helminth Infection Protects Against an Allergic Response to Dietary Antigen.
M. E. H. Bashir, P. Andersen, I. J. Fuss, H. N. Shi, and C. Nagler-Anderson (2002)
J. Immunol. 169, 3284-3292
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »

E-Letters:

Read all E-Letters

Parasite-activated TH2 cytokine signaling via a T-cell independent pathway
Ka Bian, et al.
Science Online, 25 Jun 2002 [Full text]

ADVERTISEMENT
Click Me!

ADVERTISEMENT
Click Me!

To Advertise     Find Products

Science. ISSN 0036-8075 (print), 1095-9203 (online)