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Science 20 December 1996:
Vol. 274. no. 5295, pp. 2060 - 2063
DOI: 10.1126/science.274.5295.2060
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Reports

Initiation of Plant Disease Resistance by Physical Interaction of AvrPto and Pto Kinase

Xiaoyan Tang, * Reid D. Frederick, * Jianmin Zhou, Dennis A. Halterman, Yulin Jia, Gregory B. Martin dagger

Resistance to bacterial speck disease in tomato occurs when the Pto kinase in the plant responds to expression of the avirulence gene avrPto in the Pseudomonas pathogen. Transient expression of an avrPto transgene in plant cells containing Pto elicited a defense response. In the yeast two-hybrid system, the Pto kinase physically interacted with AvrPto. Alterations of AvrPto or Pto that disrupted the interaction in yeast also abolished disease resistance in plants. The physical interaction of AvrPto and Pto provides an explanation of gene-for-gene specificity in bacterial speck disease resistance.

Department of Agronomy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-1150
*   These authors contributed equally to this work.

dagger    To whom correspondence should be addressed.

Disease resistance in many plant-pathogen interactions results from the expression of a resistance (R) gene in the plant and a corresponding avirulence (avr) gene in the pathogen (1) and is often associated with the rapid, localized cell death of the hypersensitive response (HR). R genes that respond to specific bacterial, fungal, or viral pathogens have been isolated from a variety of plant species and several appear to encode cytoplasmic proteins (2, 3, 4, 5). It has been unclear how such proteins could recognize an extracellular pathogen.

Sequence analysis of over 30 bacterial avr genes has generated little insight into the recognition process (6). Some bacterial pathogens of mammals use a protein secretion system, the type III pathway, to inject virulence proteins directly into the host cell (7). Components of a type III pathway are also encoded by the Hrp genes in many bacterial pathogens of plants, including Pseudomonas species (8). Thus phytobacterial pathogens might directly introduce Avr proteins into plant cells. A report that avrB from Pseudomonas syringae pv. glycinea elicits an R gene-dependent HR when expressed within plant cells supports this model (9).

We examined the interaction between tomato and the bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato. Research with this system has led to the isolation of the bacterial avrPto gene and the tomato Pto gene that, when expressed in the corresponding organisms, result in resistance to bacterial speck disease (2, 10, 11). Sequence analysis of avrPto has not revealed its function (11). The Pto gene encodes a serine-threonine kinase and is a member of a clustered gene family that also includes the Fen gene (2, 12, 13). The amino acid sequence of Fen kinase is 87% similar to Pto. Fen confers sensitivity to the insecticide fenthion (12). Other components of this signaling pathway in tomato include the Prf and Pti1 genes. Prf has similarities to a broad class of R gene products in that it contains leucine-rich repeats and a nucleotide binding site (14). Pti1 is a serine-threonine kinase probably acting downstream of Pto (15). We report here that the bacterial AvrPto protein directly interacts with the plant Pto kinase.

We used an Agrobacterium-mediated transient gene expression assay (16) to test if AvrPto protein could induce an HR when expressed inside plant cells (Fig. 1). Tobacco plants overexpressing the tomato Pto gene were used for this assay because they develop an enhanced HR specifically in response to Pseudomonas syringae pv. tabaci expressing avrPto (17). The avrPto gene under control of the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter was introduced into Agrobacterium EHA105, which was subsequently infiltrated into fully expanded tobacco leaves (16). Ultraviolet-stimulated fluorescence was observed 32 hours after infiltration, indicating the accumulation of phenolic compounds associated with disease resistance (Fig. 1A). An HR appeared approximately 48 hours after injection (Fig. 1B). Neither fluorescence nor an HR occurred in leaves injected with either EHA105 containing pBI121 alone or with Agrobacterium strain A136 containing the 35S::avrPto construct but lacking the Ti plasmid (18). Thus, AvrPto protein induces a defense response when introduced directly into plant cells expressing the Pto gene (Fig. 1, A and B).

Fig. 1. Expression of avrPto in tobacco leaves. Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain EHA105 containing a 35S::GUS construct (left) or a 35S::avrPto construct (right) was injected into leaves of tobacco line W-38 expressing a 35S::Pto transgene (17). (A) Accumulation of ultraviolet-fluorescent compounds at 32 hours after infiltration. (B) Development of the HR at 48 hours after infiltration. [View Larger Version of this Image (115K GIF file)]

Because the Pto kinase confers recognition specificity in bacterial speck resistance, we tested whether Pto and AvrPto physically interact in the yeast two-hybrid system (19) (Fig. 2). Neither AvrPto nor Pto expressed individually activated the lacZ reporter gene in the two-hybrid system (Fig. 2). However, expression of both AvrPto and Pto in the same yeast cell activated the lacZ gene, demonstrating interaction of these two proteins (Fig. 2). Co-expression of AvrPto with kinases encoded by the recessive pto allele (20), the Fen gene, or with a mutant Pto protein that is unable to autophosphorylate (Pto[K69Q]; 13) did not activate lacZ (Fig. 2). The physical interaction of AvrPto with Pto suggests that AvrPto serves as a bacterial signal molecule and that Pto serves as the corresponding receptor.

Fig. 2. Interaction of AvrPto with Pto. The LexA two-hybrid system (19) was used to test possible interaction of AvrPto with Pto and other closely related kinases. In all cases the avrPto gene was introduced on pJG4-5, and the other genes were introduced on pEG202. Yeast strains were grown at 30°C for 2 days on galactose, X-Gal complete minimal medium (19). Yeast strains contain: (A) AvrPto, (B) Pto, (C) AvrPto/Pto, (D) AvrPto/Pto, (E) AvrPto/Pto(K69Q), or (F) AvrPto/Fen. [View Larger Version of this Image (21K GIF file)]

To determine if particular regions of Pto are required for interaction with AvrPto, we constructed a series of chimeric proteins each consisting of different portions of Pto and Fen (Fig. 3A) (21). All Pto-Fen chimeric proteins possess kinase activity as determined by in vitro autophosphorylation assays [we were unable to express chimeric construct C in Escherichia coli (13, 22)]. In the two-hybrid system, AvrPto specifically interacted with chimera G (23) (Fig. 3A). Comparison of chimera G with the other chimeras implicated a region in Pto from amino acids 129 to 224 that is required for interaction with AvrPto. We also generated stable transgenic tomato plants expressing each of the Pto-Fen constructs to examine the requirement of different regions of the Pto protein for disease resistance (24) (Fig. 3B). Only chimeric genes C and G conferred resistance in tomato to the avirulent pathogen whereas the other chimeric genes conferred sensitivity to fenthion (Fig. 3B) (22). Thus a 95-amino acid stretch of the Pto kinase is involved in pathogen recognition and also forms a part of the interaction site with the AvrPto protein.


Fig. 3. (A) Interactions of Pto-Fen chimeric proteins with AvrPto. The diagram (left) depicts Pto (A) and Fen (B) and chimeric proteins (C through H) (21). The amino acids in Pto that demarcate the junction points between portions from Pto (in black) and portions from Fen (white) are shown at the bottom. EGY48 yeast cells containing AvrPto (in pJG4-5) and the various Pto-Fen chimeric proteins (in pEG202) were grown at 30°C for 2 days on galactose, X-Gal complete minimal medium (center). Similar expression of each protein in yeast was verified by protein immunoblots (Western) (32). I, Interaction assays in the two-hybrid system. D, disease responses of the corresponding transgenic Moneymaker plants inoculated with avirulent P. syringae tomato strain T1(pPtE6) (12). R, resistant; S, susceptible; and ND, not determined. (B) Disease responses of transgenic tomato plants containing the Pto-Fen chimeric constructs. Leaves of primary transformants (24) were inoculated by dipping into a solution of avirulent P. syringae tomato strain T1(pPtE6) (4 × 107 cfu/ml; 2). Photographs were taken 5 days after inoculation. The leaves shown are from plants containing the following transgenes under transcriptional control of the CaMV 35S promoter: (A) Pto, (B) Fen, and (C to G) chimeric constructs (C), (D), (E), (F), and (G). [Chimeric construct (H) was not transformed into Moneymaker]. A leaf from a nontransgenic Moneymaker plant is shown in (I). [View Larger Versions of these Images (117K GIF file)]

Several carboxy-terminal deletions of AvrPto were assayed for interaction with Pto in the two-hybrid system (Fig. 4A) (25). Deletions CDelta 12 and CDelta 25, lacking 12 and 25 amino acids, respectively, from the carboxy terminus interacted with Pto whereas the others did not (Fig. 4A).


Fig. 4. (A) Interactions of AvrPto deletion proteins with Pto. The diagram (left) depicts the wild-type AvrPto protein, and the series of deletion constructs of AvrPto: CDelta 12, CDelta 25, CDelta 41, or CDelta 74. EGY48 yeast cells containing Pto (in pEG202) and one of the AvrPto deletion constructs (in pJG4-5) were grown at 30°C for 2 days on galactose, X-Gal complete minimal medium. Similar expression of each protein in yeast was verified by Western blots (32). I, Interaction assays in the two-hybrid system. (B) Growth in tobacco leaves of P. syringae tabaci expressing the avrPto deletion constructs. Pseudomonas syringae tabaci strain 11528R containing wild-type avrPto or one of the avrPto deletion constructs was injected into tobacco leaves. Bacterial populations were determined at the specified time points (17). Error bars equal one-half of the least significant difference at probability level of 0.05. Means are different where error bars do not overlap. Shown are inoculations with P. syringae tabaci containing: no avrPto (white), CDelta 41 (horizontal lines), CDelta 25 (diagonal lines), CDelta 12 (cross-hatched), or wild-type avrPto (black). [View Larger Versions of these Images (60K GIF file)]

The avrPto deletions were also introduced into two P. syringae pathovars, tomato and tabaci, and inoculated onto tomato and tobacco plants to assess their effects on the HR and disease symptoms (26). Only the two AvrPto deletions that interacted with Pto in the two-hybrid system, CDelta 12 and CDelta 25, induced both an HR and disease resistance in a Pto-dependent manner (Table 1). Disease resistance was quantified by measuring bacterial growth after inoculation of Pto-transgenic tobacco leaves with 105 cfu/ml (17) (Fig. 4B). Expression of CDelta 41 in P. syringae tabaci did not affect bacterial growth in leaves, whereas expression of CDelta 12 and CDelta 25 reduced the final bacterial populations by 15- and 6-fold, respectively, compared to a P. syringae tabaci strain lacking avrPto (Fig. 4B) (27). Therefore, the ability of AvrPto to interact with Pto in the two-hybrid system correlates with its ability to elicit disease resistance in plants.

Table 1. Analysis of avrPto deletions in P. syringae pv. tomato and P. syringae pv. tabaci inoculated on tomato or tobacco, respectively. The ability to elicit the hypersensitive response was assayed by infiltrating 108 colony-forming units per milliliter into tomato or tobacco leaves. The ability of the Pseudomonas strains to cause disease symptoms was assayed by infiltrating tobacco leaves with 105 cfu/ml or dipping tomato leaves into 107 cfu/ml. Tomato lines analyzed were near isogenic cultivars Rio Grande-PtoR (Pto/Pto) and Rio Grande (pto/pto). Tobacco line was Wisconsin-38 containing a 35S::Pto transgene (17). + indicates a hypersensitive response or disease symptoms were observed; - indicates no hypersensitive response or disease symptoms were observed; N.D., not determined.

Plant Genotype P. syringae pv. tomato
 P. syringaepv. tabaci
Hypersensitive response*
 Disease symptomsdagger
Hypersensitive response
 Disease symptoms
Tomato Tomato Tobacco 35S::Pto Tobacco 35S::Pto
Pto/Pto pto/pto Pto/Pto pto/pto
Construct
avrPto +  -  - + +  -
CDelta 12 +  -  - + +  -
CDelta 25 +  -  - + +  -
CDelta 41  -  - + +  - +
CDelta 74  -  - + + N.D. N.D.
None  -  - + +  - +
* Hypersensitive response appeared as tissue collapse of the infiltrated area and was scored 14 hours after infiltration.
dagger Disease symptoms in tomato appeared as small necrotic lesions and in tobacco as dark, water-soaked regions. Symptoms were scored 5 days after inoculation.

Genetic analysis of many plant-pathogen associations has supported a model for direct interaction between R gene products and avr gene products (28). However, the inability to detect secretion of bacterial Avr proteins and the apparent cytoplasmic location of several R gene products seemed to preclude such a mechanism (2, 3, 29). Our results support such a model for bacterial speck resistance and suggest functional implications of the AvrPto-Pto interaction. The interaction of AvrPto with Pto, perhaps anchored to the plasma membrane by Prf, may stimulate Pto kinase activity and trigger a phosphorylation cascade. Alternatively, AvrPto may facilitate dimerization and cross-phosphorylation between Pto molecules. Finally, AvrPto might participate in a protein complex involving other proteins, including Prf, that activates the Pto signaling pathway.

How universal is this mode of recognition in plant pathogen interactions? Gene products that confer resistance to Pseudomonas species (2, 3, 14), and to a fungal pathogen and an intracellular viral pathogen (4) appear to be cytoplasmic. Direct protein-protein interactions within the plant cell would be consistent with the gene-for-gene specificity seen in these associations. However, not all R gene products are alike. Pto, for example, is a cytoplasmic protein kinase (2). The other R genes, and Prf, encode proteins containing leucine-rich repeats and in some cases a nucleotide binding site (3, 4, 5, 14). Certain R gene products appear to have extracellular domains and may be involved in protein-protein interactions that are external to the plant cell (5).

Bacterial pathogens of plants and mammals share common components for the type III protein secretion pathway whereby virulence factors are delivered directly into host cells (7). In some Pseudomonas species, the same virulence factors are employed against both plants and animals (30). Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, a mammalian enteropathogen, disrupts host signal transduction by introducing a serine-threonine kinase and a phosphatase into the mammalian host cell (31). We have shown that a signal transduction pathway that leads to disease resistance in plants is also the target of a bacterial pathogen signal molecule; however, the result in this instance is recognition of the pathogen. Conservation of virulence mechanisms among plant and mammalian bacterial pathogens suggests that similar disease resistance mechanisms may have also evolved in these taxonomic kingdoms.

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  32. Levels of protein expression were determined with the use of antibody to LexA (a gift from E. Golemis) for LexA fusion proteins (in pEG202) and antibody to the hemagglutinin (HA) epitope tag (Boehringer-Manheim) for the AvrPto::HA fusion protein (in pJG4-5).
  33. We thank L. Dunkle, A. Friedman, S. Gelvin, and K. Perry for helpful comments on the manuscript. Supported, in part, by a Purdue Research Foundation Doctoral Fellowship (D.H.), National Science Foundation grant MCB-93-03359 (G.B.M.) and a David and Lucile Packard Foundation Fellowship (G.B.M.).

8 August 1996; accepted 22 November 1996


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J. Gen. Virol. 85, 2077-2085
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Guarding the Goods. New Insights into the Central Alarm System of Plants.
R. W. Innes (2004)
Plant Physiology 135, 695-701
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The Receptor for the Fungal Elicitor Ethylene-Inducing Xylanase Is a Member of a Resistance-Like Gene Family in Tomato.
M. Ron and A. Avni (2004)
PLANT CELL 16, 1604-1615
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The Melampsora lini AvrL567 Avirulence Genes Are Expressed in Haustoria and Their Products Are Recognized inside Plant Cells.
P. N. Dodds, G. J. Lawrence, A.-M. Catanzariti, M. A. Ayliffe, and J. G. Ellis (2004)
PLANT CELL 16, 755-768
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The Arabidopsis thaliana Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate Reductase Gene SUPPRESSOR OF FATTY ACID DESATURASE DEFICIENCY1 Is Required for Glycerolipid Metabolism and for the Activation of Systemic Acquired Resistance.
A. Nandi, R. Welti, and J. Shah (2004)
PLANT CELL 16, 465-477
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Convergent Evolution of Disease Resistance Gene Specificity in Two Flowering Plant Families.
T. Ashfield, L. E. Ong, K. Nobuta, C. M. Schneider, and R. W. Innes (2004)
PLANT CELL 16, 309-318
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Flagellin Glycosylation Island in Pseudomonas syringae pv. glycinea and Its Role in Host Specificity.
K. Takeuchi, F. Taguchi, Y. Inagaki, K. Toyoda, T. Shiraishi, and Y. Ichinose (2003)
J. Bacteriol. 185, 6658-6665
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The Arabidopsis NHL3 Gene Encodes a Plasma Membrane Protein and Its Overexpression Correlates with Increased Resistance to Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000.
A. Varet, B. Hause, G. Hause, D. Scheel, and J. Lee (2003)
Plant Physiology 132, 2023-2033
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Physical interaction between RRS1-R, a protein conferring resistance to bacterial wilt, and PopP2, a type III effector targeted to the plant nucleus.
L. Deslandes, J. Olivier, N. Peeters, D. X. Feng, M. Khounlotham, C. Boucher, I. Somssich, S. Genin, and Y. Marco (2003)
PNAS 100, 8024-8029
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In Defense against Pathogens. Both Plant Sentinels and Foot Soldiers Need to Know the Enemy.
P. Veronese, M. T. Ruiz, M. A. Coca, A. Hernandez-Lopez, H. Lee, J. I. Ibeas, B. Damsz, J. M. Pardo, P. M. Hasegawa, R. A. Bressan, et al. (2003)
Plant Physiology 131, 1580-1590
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Pto Mutants Differentially Activate Prf-Dependent, avrPto-Independent Resistance and Gene-for-Gene Resistance.
F. Xiao, M. Lu, J. Li, T. Zhao, S. Y. Yi, V. K. Thara, X. Tang, and J.-M. Zhou (2003)
Plant Physiology 131, 1239-1249
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The Coat Protein of Turnip Crinkle Virus Suppresses Posttranscriptional Gene Silencing at an Early Initiation Step.
F. Qu, T. Ren, and T. J. Morris (2002)
J. Virol. 77, 511-522
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Genetic and Molecular Characterization of the Maize rp3 Rust Resistance Locus.
C. A. Webb, T. E. Richter, N. C. Collins, M. Nicolas, H. N. Trick, T. Pryor, and S. H. Hulbert (2002)
Genetics 162, 381-394
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Direct biochemical evidence for type III secretion-dependent translocation of the AvrBs2 effector protein into plant cells.
C. Casper-Lindley, D. Dahlbeck, E. T. Clark, and B. J. Staskawicz (2002)
PNAS 99, 8336-8341
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Biochemical Characterization of the Kinase Domain of the Rice Disease Resistance Receptor-like Kinase XA21.
G.-Z. Liu, L.-Y. Pi, J. C. Walker, P. C. Ronald, and W.-Y. Song (2002)
J. Biol. Chem. 277, 20264-20269
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Arabidopsis RAR1 Exerts Rate-Limiting Control of R Gene-Mediated Defenses against Multiple Pathogens.
P. R. Muskett, K. Kahn, M. J. Austin, L. J. Moisan, A. Sadanandom, K. Shirasu, J. D. G. Jones, and J. E. Parker (2002)
PLANT CELL 14, 979-992
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Ethylene Biosynthesis and Signaling Networks.
K. L.-C. Wang, H. Li, and J. R. Ecker (2002)
PLANT CELL 14, S131-151
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Plant Receptor-Like Kinase Gene Family: Diversity, Function, and Signaling.
S.-H. Shiu and A. B. Bleecker (2001)
Sci. STKE 2001, re22
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Sensitivity of Different Ecotypes and Mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana toward the Bacterial Elicitor Flagellin Correlates with the Presence of Receptor-binding Sites.
Z. Bauer, L. Gomez-Gomez, T. Boller, and G. Felix (2001)
J. Biol. Chem. 276, 45669-45676
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The Role of NDR1 in Avirulence Gene-Directed Signaling and Control of Programmed Cell Death in Arabidopsis.
A. D. Shapiro and C. Zhang (2001)
Plant Physiology 127, 1089-1101
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Activation of Salicylic Acid-Induced Protein Kinase, a Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase, Induces Multiple Defense Responses in Tobacco.
S. Zhang and Y. Liu (2001)
PLANT CELL 13, 1877-1889
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The Leucine-Rich Repeat Domain Can Determine Effective Interaction Between RPS2 and Other Host Factors in Arabidopsis RPS2-Mediated Disease Resistance.
D. Banerjee, X. Zhang, and A. F. Bent (2001)
Genetics 158, 439-450
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Both the Extracellular Leucine-Rich Repeat Domain and the Kinase Activity of FLS2 Are Required for Flagellin Binding and Signaling in Arabidopsis.
L. Gómez-Gómez, Z. Bauer, and T. Boller (2001)
PLANT CELL 13, 1155-1163
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Ancient origin of pathogen recognition specificity conferred by the tomato disease resistance gene Pto.
B. K. Riely and G. B. Martin (2001)
PNAS 98, 2059-2064
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Domain Swapping and Gene Shuffling Identify Sequences Required for Induction of an Avr-Dependent Hypersensitive Response by the Tomato Cf-4 and Cf-9 Proteins.
B. B. H. Wulff, C. M. Thomas, M. Smoker, M. Grant, and J. D. G. Jones (2001)
PLANT CELL 13, 255-272
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Activation of a mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway is involved in disease resistance in tobacco.
K.-Y. Yang, Y. Liu, and S. Zhang (2001)
PNAS 98, 741-746
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Molecular Evolution of Virulence in Natural Field Strains of Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria.
W. Gassmann, D. Dahlbeck, O. Chesnokova, G. V. Minsavage, J. B. Jones, and B. J. Staskawicz (2000)
J. Bacteriol. 182, 7053-7059
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The Pseudomonas AvrPto Protein Is Differentially Recognized by Tomato and Tobacco and Is Localized to the Plant Plasma Membrane.
L. Shan, V. K. Thara, G. B. Martin, J.-M. Zhou, and X. Tang (2000)
PLANT CELL 12, 2323-2338
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Mutational Analysis of the Arabidopsis Nucleotide Binding Site-Leucine-Rich Repeat Resistance Gene RPS2.
Y. Tao, F. Yuan, R. T. Leister, F. M. Ausubel, and F. Katagiri (2000)
PLANT CELL 12, 2541-2554
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Arabidopsis in Planta Transformation. Uses, Mechanisms, and Prospects for Transformation of Other Species.
A. F. Bent (2000)
Plant Physiology 124, 1540-1547
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HRT Gene Function Requires Interaction between a NAC Protein and Viral Capsid Protein to Confer Resistance to Turnip Crinkle Virus.
T. Ren, F. Qu, and T. J. Morris (2000)
PLANT CELL 12, 1917-1926
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Pseudomonas syringae Hrp type III secretion system and effector proteins.
A. Collmer, J. L. Badel, A. O. Charkowski, W.-L. Deng, D. E. Fouts, A. R. Ramos, A. H. Rehm, D. M. Anderson, O. Schneewind, K. van Dijk, et al. (2000)
PNAS 97, 8770-8777
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Genetic complexity of pathogen perception by plants: The example of Rcr3, a tomato gene required specifically by Cf-2.
M. S. Dixon, C. Golstein, C. M. Thomas, E. A. van der Biezen, and J. D. G. Jones (2000)
PNAS 97, 8807-8814
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AvrPto-dependent Pto-interacting proteins and AvrPto-interacting proteins in tomato.
A. J. Bogdanove and G. B. Martin (2000)
PNAS 97, 8836-8840
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Virulence of the Phytopathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. Maculicola Is rpoN Dependent.
E. L. Hendrickson, P. Guevera, A. Peñaloza-Vàzquez, J. Shao, C. Bender, and F. M. Ausubel (2000)
J. Bacteriol. 182, 3498-3507
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The Alternative Sigma Factor RpoN Is Required for hrp Activity in Pseudomonas syringae pv. Maculicola and Acts at the Level of hrpL Transcription.
E. L. Hendrickson, P. Guevera, and F. M. Ausubel (2000)
J. Bacteriol. 182, 3508-3516
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Members of the Arabidopsis HRT/RPP8 Family of Resistance Genes Confer Resistance to Both Viral and Oomycete Pathogens.
M. B. Cooley, S. Pathirana, H.-J. Wu, P. Kachroo, and D. F. Klessig (2000)
PLANT CELL 12, 663-676
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Pti4 Is Induced by Ethylene and Salicylic Acid, and Its Product Is Phosphorylated by the Pto Kinase.
Y.-Q. Gu, C. Yang, V. K. Thara, J. Zhou, and G. B. Martin (2000)
PLANT CELL 12, 771-786
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Characterization of the Cryptogein Binding Sites on Plant Plasma Membranes.
S. Bourque, M.-N. Binet, M. Ponchet, A. Pugin, and A. Lebrun-Garcia (1999)
J. Biol. Chem. 274, 34699-34705
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The C Terminus of AvrXa10 Can Be Replaced by the Transcriptional Activation Domain of VP16 from the Herpes Simplex Virus.
W. Zhu, B. Yang, N. Wills, L. B. Johnson, and F. F. White (1999)
PLANT CELL 11, 1665-1674
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The Avr (Effector) Proteins HrmA (HopPsyA) and AvrPto Are Secreted in Culture from Pseudomonas syringae Pathovars via the Hrp (Type III) Protein Secretion System in a Temperature- and pH-Sensitive Manner.
K. van Dijk, D. E. Fouts, A. H. Rehm, A. R. Hill, A. Collmer, and J. R. Alfano (1999)
J. Bacteriol. 181, 4790-4797
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Identification of Three Putative Signal Transduction Genes Involved in R Gene-Specified Disease Resistance in Arabidopsis.
R. F. Warren, P. M. Merritt, E. Holub, and R. W. Innes (1999)
Genetics 152, 401-412
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The Rx Gene from Potato Controls Separate Virus Resistance and Cell Death Responses.
A. Bendahmane, K. Kanyuka, and D. C. Baulcombe (1999)
PLANT CELL 11, 781-792
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Isolation of Ethylene-Insensitive Soybean Mutants That Are Altered in Pathogen Susceptibility and Gene-for-Gene Disease Resistance.
T. Hoffman, J. S. Schmidt, X. Zheng, and A. F. Bent (1999)
Plant Physiology 119, 935-950
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Pathogen-Induced Elicitin Production in Transgenic Tobacco Generates a Hypersensitive Response and Nonspecific Disease Resistance.
H. Keller, N. Pamboukdjian, M. Ponchet, A. Poupet, R. Delon, J.-L. Verrier, D. Roby, and P. Ricci (1999)
PLANT CELL 11, 223-236
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Rapid Avr 9- and Cf-9 –Dependent Activation of MAP Kinases in Tobacco Cell Cultures and Leaves: Convergence of Resistance Gene, Elicitor, Wound, and Salicylate Responses.
T. Romeis, P. Piedras, S. Zhang, D. F. Klessig, H. Hirt, and J. D. G. Jones (1999)
PLANT CELL 11, 273-288
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Overexpression of P to Activates Defense Responses and Confers Broad Resistance.
X. Tang, M. Xie, Y. J. Kim, J. Zhou, D. F. Klessig, and G. B. Martin (1999)
PLANT CELL 11, 15-30
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The Arabidopsis thaliana RPM1 disease resistance gene product is a peripheral plasma membrane protein that is degraded coincident with the hypersensitive response.
D. C. Boyes, J. Nam, and J. L. Dangl (1998)
PNAS 95, 15849-15854
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Clusters of Resistance Genes in Plants Evolve by Divergent Selection and a Birth-and-Death Process.
R. W. Michelmore and B. C. Meyers (1998)
Genome Res. 8, 1113-1130
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Three Genes of the Arabidopsis RPP1 Complex Resistance Locus Recognize Distinct Peronospora parasitica Avirulence Determinants.
M. A. Botella, J. E. Parker, L. N. Frost, P. D. Bittner-Eddy, J. L. Beynon, M. J. Daniels, E. B. Holub, and J. D. G. Jones (1998)
PLANT CELL 10, 1847-1860
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The Tomato Cf-5 Disease Resistance Gene and Six Homologs Show Pronounced Allelic Variation in Leucine-Rich Repeat Copy Number.
M. S. Dixon, K. Hatzixanthis, D. A. Jones, K. Harrison, and J. D. G. Jones (1998)
PLANT CELL 10, 1915-1926
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The Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato HrpW Protein Has Domains Similar to Harpins and Pectate Lyases and Can Elicit the Plant Hypersensitive Response and Bind to Pectate.
A. O. Charkowski, J. R. Alfano, G. Preston, J. Yuan, S. Y. He, and A. Collmer (1998)
J. Bacteriol. 180, 5211-5217
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Negative Regulation of hrp Genes in Pseudomonas syringae by HrpV.
G. Preston, W.-L. Deng, H.-C. Huang, and A. Collmer (1998)
J. Bacteriol. 180, 4532-4537
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A Mutation within the Leucine-Rich Repeat Domain of the Arabidopsis Disease Resistance Gene RPS5 Partially Suppresses Multiple Bacterial and Downy Mildew Resistance Genes.
R. F. Warren, A. Henk, P. Mowery, E. Holub, and R. W. Innes (1998)
PLANT CELL 10, 1439-1452
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A cloned Erwinia chrysanthemi Hrp (type III protein secretion) system functions in Escherichia coli to deliver Pseudomonas syringae Avr signals to plant cells and to secrete Avr proteins in culture.
J. H. Ham, D. W. Bauer, D. E. Fouts, and A. Collmer (1998)
PNAS 95, 10206-10211
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Genetically engineered broad-spectrum disease resistance in tomato.
G. E. D. Oldroyd and B. J. Staskawicz (1998)
PNAS 95, 10300-10305
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Different requirements for EDS1 and NDR1 by disease resistance genes define at least two R gene-mediated signaling pathways in Arabidopsis.
N. Aarts, M. Metz, E. Holub, B. J. Staskawicz, M. J. Daniels, and J. E. Parker (1998)
PNAS 95, 10306-10311
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D-Subgenome Bias of Xcm Resistance Genes in Tetraploid Gossypium (Cotton) Suggests That Polyploid Formation Has Created Novel Avenues for Evolution.
R. J. Wright, P. M. Thaxton, K. M. El-Zik, and A. H. Paterson (1998)
Genetics 149, 1987-1996
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The Root Knot Nematode Resistance Gene Mi from Tomato Is a Member of the Leucine Zipper, Nucleotide Binding, Leucine-Rich Repeat Family of Plant Genes.
S. B. Milligan, J. Bodeau, J. Yaghoobi, I. Kaloshian, P. Zabel, and V. M. Williamson (1998)
PLANT CELL 10, 1307-1320
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Biochemical Properties of Two Protein Kinases Involved in Disease Resistance Signaling in Tomato.
G. Sessa, M. D'Ascenzo, Y.-T. Loh, and G. B. Martin (1998)
J. Biol. Chem. 273, 15860-15865
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Type III Protein Secretion Systems in Bacterial Pathogens of Animals and Plants.
C. J. Hueck (1998)
Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 62, 379-433
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Correlation between Binding Affinity and Necrosis-Inducing Activity of Mutant AVR9 Peptide Elicitors.
M. Kooman-Gersmann, R. Vogelsang, P. Vossen, H. W. van den Hooven, E. Mahé, G. Honée, and P. J.G.M. de Wit (1998)
Plant Physiology 117, 609-618
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Xa21D Encodes a Receptor-like Molecule with a Leucine-Rich Repeat Domain That Determines Race-Specific Recognition and Is Subject to Adaptive Evolution.
G.-L. Wang, D.-L. Ruan, W.-Y. Song, S. Sideris, L. Chen, L.-Y. Pi, S. Zhang, Z. Zhang, C. Fauquet, B. S. Gaut, et al. (1998)
PLANT CELL 10, 765-780
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Erwinia amylovora Secretes DspE, a Pathogenicity Factor and Functional AvrE Homolog, through the Hrp (Type III Secretion) Pathway.
A. J. Bogdanove, D. W. Bauer, and S. V. Beer (1998)
J. Bacteriol. 180, 2244-2247
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Characterization of a 34-kDa soybean binding protein for the syringolide elicitors.
C. Ji, C. Boyd, D. Slaymaker, Y. Okinaka, Y. Takeuchi, S. L. Midland, J. J. Sims, E. Herman, and N. Keen (1998)
PNAS 95, 3306-3311
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Yersinia enterocolitica induces apoptosis in macrophages by a process requiring functional type III secretion and translocation mechanisms and involving YopP, presumably acting as an effector protein.
S. D. Mills, A. Boland, M.-P. Sory, P. van der Smissen, C. Kerbourch, B. B. Finlay, and G. R. Cornelis (1997)
PNAS 94, 12638-12643
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
A secreted Salmonella protein with homology to an avirulence determinant of plant pathogenic bacteria.
W.-D. Hardt and J. E. Galan (1997)
PNAS 94, 9887-9892
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Signal perception and transduction in plant defense responses..
Y Yang, J Shah, and D F Klessig (1997)
Genes & Dev. 11, 1621-1639
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Flagellin from an Incompatible Strain of Pseudomonas avenae Induces a Resistance Response in Cultured Rice Cells.
F.-S. Che, Y. Nakajima, N. Tanaka, M. Iwano, T. Yoshida, S. Takayama, I. Kadota, and A. Isogai (2000)
J. Biol. Chem. 275, 32347-32356
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Resistance to Ralstonia solanacearum in Arabidopsis thaliana is conferred by the recessive RRS1-R gene, a member of a novel family of resistance genes.
L. Deslandes, J. Olivier, F. Theulieres, J. Hirsch, D. X. Feng, P. Bittner-Eddy, J. Beynon, and Y. Marco (2002)
PNAS 99, 2404-2409
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The gene coding for the Hrp pilus structural protein is required for type III secretion of Hrp and Avr proteins in Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato.
W. Wei, A. Plovanich-Jones, W.-L. Deng, Q.-L. Jin, A. Collmer, H.-C. Huang, and S. Y. He (2000)
PNAS 97, 2247-2252
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The Cf-9 Disease Resistance Protein Is Present in an ~420-Kilodalton Heteromultimeric Membrane-Associated Complex at One Molecule per Complex.
S. Rivas, T. Romeis, and J. D. G. Jones (2002)
PLANT CELL 14, 689-702
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »


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Science. ISSN 0036-8075 (print), 1095-9203 (online)