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The Genome Sequence of the Malaria Mosquito Anopheles gambiae
Robert A. Holt,1*G. Mani Subramanian,1Aaron Halpern,1Granger G. Sutton,1Rosane Charlab,1Deborah R. Nusskern,1Patrick Wincker,2Andrew G. Clark,3José M. C. Ribeiro,4Ron Wides,5Steven L. Salzberg,6Brendan Loftus,6Mark Yandell,1William H. Majoros,16Douglas B. Rusch,1Zhongwu Lai,1Cheryl L. Kraft,1Josep F. Abril,7Veronique Anthouard,2Peter Arensburger,8Peter W. Atkinson,8Holly Baden,1Veronique de Berardinis,2Danita Baldwin,1Vladimir Benes,9Jim Biedler,10Claudia Blass,9Randall Bolanos,1Didier Boscus,2Mary Barnstead,1Shuang Cai,1Angela Center,1Kabir Chatuverdi,1George K. Christophides,9Mathew A. Chrystal,11Michele Clamp,12Anibal Cravchik,1Val Curwen,12Ali Dana,11Art Delcher,1Ian Dew,1Cheryl A. Evans,1Michael Flanigan,1Anne Grundschober-Freimoser,13Lisa Friedli,8Zhiping Gu,1Ping Guan,1Roderic Guigo,7Maureen E. Hillenmeyer,11Susanne L. Hladun,1James R. Hogan,11Young S. Hong,11Jeffrey Hoover,1Olivier Jaillon,2Zhaoxi Ke,111Chinnappa Kodira,1Elena Kokoza,14Anastasios Koutsos,1516Ivica Letunic,9Alex Levitsky,1Yong Liang,1Jhy-Jhu Lin,16Neil F. Lobo,11John R. Lopez,1Joel A. Malek,6Tina C. McIntosh,1Stephan Meister,9Jason Miller,1Clark Mobarry,1Emmanuel Mongin,17Sean D. Murphy,1David A. O'Brochta,13Cynthia Pfannkoch,1Rong Qi,1Megan A. Regier,1Karin Remington,1Hongguang Shao,10Maria V. Sharakhova,11Cynthia D. Sitter,1Jyoti Shetty,6Thomas J. Smith,1Renee Strong,1Jingtao Sun,1Dana Thomasova,9Lucas Q. Ton,11Pantelis Topalis,15Zhijian Tu,10Maria F. Unger,11Brian Walenz,1Aihui Wang,1Jian Wang,1Mei Wang,1Xuelan Wang,11§Kerry J. Woodford,1Jennifer R. Wortman,16Martin Wu,6Alison Yao,1Evgeny M. Zdobnov,9Hongyu Zhang,1Qi Zhao,1Shaying Zhao,6Shiaoping C. Zhu,1Igor Zhimulev,14Mario Coluzzi,18Alessandra della Torre,18Charles W. Roth,19Christos Louis,1516Francis Kalush,1Richard J. Mural,1Eugene W. Myers,1Mark D. Adams,1Hamilton O. Smith,1Samuel Broder,1Malcolm J. Gardner,6Claire M. Fraser,6Ewan Birney,17Peer Bork,9Paul T. Brey,19J. Craig Venter,16Jean Weissenbach,2Fotis C. Kafatos,9Frank H. Collins,11Stephen L. Hoffman1
Anopheles gambiae is the principal vector
of malaria, a disease that afflicts more than 500 million people and
causes morethan 1 million deaths each year. Tenfold shotgun sequence
coveragewas obtained from the PEST strain of A. gambiae and
assembledinto scaffolds that span 278 million base pairs. A total of
91%of the genome was organized in 303 scaffolds; the largest scaffoldwas 23.1 million base pairs. There was substantial genetic variationwithin this strain, and the apparent existence of two haplotypesof
approximately equal frequency ("dual haplotypes") in a substantialfraction of the genome likely reflects the outbred nature of thePEST
strain. The sequence produced a conservative inference ofmore than
400,000 single-nucleotide polymorphisms that showeda markedly bimodal
density distribution. Analysis of the genomesequence revealed strong
evidence for about 14,000 protein-encodingtranscripts. Prominent
expansions in specific families of proteinslikely involved in cell
adhesion and immunity were noted. An expressedsequence tag analysis of
genes regulated by blood feeding providedinsights into the
physiological adaptations of a hematophagousinsect.
1 Celera Genomics, 45 West Gude Drive,
Rockville, MD 20850, USA.
2 Genoscope/Centre
National de Sequencage and CNRS-UMR 8030, 2 rue Gaston Cremieux, 91057 Evry Cedex 06, France.
3 Molecular Biology and
Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
4 Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research,
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), Building
4, Room 126, 4 Center Drive, MSC-0425, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
5 Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University,
Ramat-Gan, Israel.
6 The Institute for Genomic
Research (TIGR), 9712 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD 20850, USA.
7 Grup de Recerca en Informatica Biomedica,
IMIM/UPF/CRG, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.
8 Department of Entomology, University of
California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA.
9 European
Molecular Biology Laboratory, Meyerhofstr. 1, 69117 Heidelberg,
Germany.
10 Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.
11 Center for Tropical Disease Research and
Training, University of Notre Dame, Galvin Life Sciences Building,
Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA.
12 Wellcome Trust Sanger
Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA,
UK.
13 Center for Agricultural Biotechnology,
University of Maryland Biotechnology Institute, College Park, MD 20742, USA.
14 Institute of Cytology and Genetics,
Lavrentyeva ave 10, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia.
15 Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology
of the Foundation of Research and Technology-Hellas (IMBB-FORTH), Post
Office Box 1527, GR-711 10 Heraklion, Crete, Greece, and University of
Crete, GR-711 10 Heraklion, Crete, Greece.
16 Department of Biology, University of Crete,
GR-711 10 Heraklion, Crete, Greece.
17 European
Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton,
Cambridge CB10 1SD, UK.
18 Dipartimento di Scienze
di Sanità Pubblica, Sezione di Parassitologia, Università
degli Studi di Roma "La Sapienza," P.le Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Roma,
Italy.
19 Unité de Biochimie et Biologie
Moléculaire des Insectes, Institut Pasteur, Paris 75724 Cedex 15, France.
*
Present address: Canada's Michael Smith Genome Science Centre,
British Columbia Cancer Agency, Room 3427, 600 West 10th Avenue,Vancouver, British Columbia V5Z 4E6, Canada.
Present address: Agencourt Bioscience Corporation,
100 Cummings Center, Suite 107J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA.
§
Present address: Department of Pharmacology, Sun
Yat-Sen Medical School, Sun Yat-Sen University #74, Zhongshan 2nd Road,
Guangzhou(Canton), 510089, P. R. China.
Present address: Sanaria, 308 Argosy Drive, Gaithersburg, MD
20878, USA.
To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
robert.holt{at}celera.com, rholt{at}bcgsc.ca (R.A.H.),
frank.h.collins.75{at}nd.edu(F.H.C.).
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CEGMA: a pipeline to accurately annotate core genes in eukaryotic genomes.
Extreme genomic variation in a natural population.
K. S. Small, M. Brudno, M. M. Hill, and A. Sidow (2007)
PNAS
104, 5698-5703
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
MOLECULAR KARYOTYPING OF THE 2LA INVERSION IN ANOPHELES GAMBIAE.
B. J. WHITE, F. SANTOLAMAZZA, L. KAMAU, M. POMBI, O. GRUSHKO, K. MOULINE, C. BRENGUES, W. GUELBEOGO, M. COULIBALY, J. K. KAYONDO, et al. (2007)
Am J Trop Med Hyg
76, 334-339
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
Heterogeneity in Regional GC Content and Differential Usage of Codons and Amino Acids in GC-Poor and GC-Rich Regions of the Genome of Apis mellifera.
F. G. Jorgensen, M. H. Schierup, and A. G. Clark (2007)
Mol. Biol. Evol.
24, 611-619
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
VectorBase: a home for invertebrate vectors of human pathogens.
D. Lawson, P. Arensburger, P. Atkinson, N. J. Besansky, R. V. Bruggner, R. Butler, K. S. Campbell, G. K. Christophides, S. Christley, E. Dialynas, et al. (2007)
Nucleic Acids Res.
35, D503-D505
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
Exploring Frontiers in the DNA Landscape: An Introduction to the Symposium "Genome Analysis and the Molecular Systematics of Retroelements".
Reduced Recombination Rate and Genetic Differentiation Between the M and S Forms of Anopheles gambiae s.s..
M. A. Slotman, L. J. Reimer, T. Thiemann, G. Dolo, E. Fondjo, and G. C. Lanzaro (2006)
Genetics
174, 2081-2093
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
The use of transcriptional profiles to predict adult mosquito age under field conditions.
P. E. Cook, L. E. Hugo, I. Iturbe-Ormaetxe, C. R. Williams, S. F. Chenoweth, S. A. Ritchie, P. A. Ryan, B. H. Kay, M. W. Blows, and S. L. O'Neill (2006)
PNAS
103, 18060-18065
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
VARIATION IN RECOMBINATION RATE ACROSS THE X CHROMOSOME OF ANOPHELES GAMBIAE.
M. POMBI, A. D. STUMP, A. D. TORRE, and N. J. BESANSKY (2006)
Am J Trop Med Hyg
75, 901-903
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
Dating divergences in the Fungal Tree of Life: review and new analyses.
Patterns of conservation and change in honey bee developmental genes.
P. K. Dearden, M. J. Wilson, L. Sablan, P. W. Osborne, M. Havler, E. McNaughton, K. Kimura, N. V. Milshina, M. Hasselmann, T. Gempe, et al. (2006)
Genome Res.
16, 1376-1384
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
Phylogenomic analysis reveals bees and wasps (Hymenoptera) at the base of the radiation of Holometabolous insects.
J. Savard, D. Tautz, S. Richards, G. M. Weinstock, R. A. Gibbs, J. H. Werren, H. Tettelin, and M. J. Lercher (2006)
Genome Res.
16, 1334-1338
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
Role of the yellow fever virus structural protein genes in viral dissemination from the Aedes aegypti mosquito midgut..
K. L. McElroy, K. A. Tsetsarkin, D. L. Vanlandingham, and S. Higgs (2006)
J. Gen. Virol.
87, 2993-3001
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
Molecular characterization of sodium/proton exchanger 3 (NHE3) from the yellow fever vector, Aedes aegypti.
A. K. Pullikuth, K. Aimanova, W. Kang'ethe, H. R. Sanders, and S. S. Gill (2006)
J. Exp. Biol.
209, 3529-3544
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
Comparative sequence analysis and tissue localization of members of the SLC6 family of transporters in adult Drosophila melanogaster.
M. S. Thimgan, J. S. Berg, and A. E. Stuart (2006)
J. Exp. Biol.
209, 3383-3404
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
An Unconventional Nuclear Localization Motif Is Crucial for Function of the Drosophila Wnt/Wingless Antagonist Naked Cuticle.
S. Waldrop, C.-C. Chan, T. Cagatay, S. Zhang, R. Rousset, J. Mack, W. Zeng, M. Fish, M. Zhang, M. Amanai, et al. (2006)
Genetics
174, 331-348
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
Heterochromatic Genes in Drosophila: A Comparative Analysis of Two Genes.
S. R. Schulze, B. F. McAllister, D. A. R. Sinclair, K. A. Fitzpatrick, M. Marchetti, S. Pimpinelli, and B. M. Honda (2006)
Genetics
173, 1433-1445
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
R. L. Warren, D. Varabei, D. Platt, X. Huang, D. Messina, S.-P. Yang, J. W. Kronstad, M. Krzywinski, W. C. Warren, J. W. Wallis, et al. (2006)
Genome Res.
16, 768-775
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
Origin and Molecular Evolution of Receptor Tyrosine Kinases with Immunoglobulin-Like Domains.
J. Grassot, M. Gouy, G. Perriere, and G. Mouchiroud (2006)
Mol. Biol. Evol.
23, 1232-1241
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
Breakpoint structure reveals the unique origin of an interspecific chromosomal inversion (2La) in the Anopheles gambiae complex.
I. V. Sharakhov, B. J. White, M. V. Sharakhova, J. Kayondo, N. F. Lobo, F. Santolamazza, A. della Torre, F. Simard, F. H. Collins, and N. J. Besansky (2006)
PNAS
103, 6258-6262
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
Evolution of exon-intron structure and alternative splicing in fruit flies and malarial mosquito genomes.
D. B. Malko, V. J. Makeev, A. A. Mironov, and M. S. Gelfand (2006)
Genome Res.
16, 505-509
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
Functional Conservation of the fruitless Male Sex-Determination Gene Across 250 Myr of Insect Evolution.
D. A. Gailey, J.-C. Billeter, J. H. Liu, F. Bauzon, J. B. Allendorfer, and S. F. Goodwin (2006)
Mol. Biol. Evol.
23, 633-643
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
Identifying neuropeptide and protein hormone receptors in Drosophila melanogaster by exploiting genomic data.
F. Hauser, M. Williamson, G. Cazzamali, and C. J. P. Grimmelikhuijzen (2006)
Brief Funct Genomic Proteomic
4, 321-330
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
Function and Evolution of a Mosquito Salivary Protein Family.
E. Calvo, B. J. Mans, J. F. Andersen, and J. M. C. Ribeiro (2006)
J. Biol. Chem.
281, 1935-1942
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
Stimulation of muscarinic receptors mimics experience-dependent plasticity in the honey bee brain.
The Origin and Evolution of Mosquito APE Retroposons.
J. L. Crainey, C. F. Garvey, and C. A. Malcolm (2005)
Mol. Biol. Evol.
22, 2190-2197
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
The Coevolution of Insect Muscle TpnT and TpnI Gene Isoforms.
R. Herranz, J. Mateos, J. A. Mas, E. Garcia-Zaragoza, M. Cervera, and R. Marco (2005)
Mol. Biol. Evol.
22, 2231-2242
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
Realizing the Promise of Genomics in Biomedical Research.
A. E. Guttmacher and F. S. Collins (2005)
JAMA
294, 1399-1402
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Carbonic anhydrase in the adult mosquito midgut.
M. del Pilar Corena, L. VanEkeris, Ma. I. Salazar, D. Bowers, M. M. Fiedler, D. Silverman, C. Tu, and P. J. Linser (2005)
J. Exp. Biol.
208, 3263-3273
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
Mosquito natriuretic peptide identified as a calcitonin-like diuretic hormone in Anopheles gambiae (Giles).
G. M. Coast, C. S. Garside, S. G. Webster, K. M. Schegg, and D. A. Schooley (2005)
J. Exp. Biol.
208, 3281-3291
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
Immune signaling pathways regulating bacterial and malaria parasite infection of the mosquito Anopheles gambiae.
S. Meister, S. M. Kanzok, X.-l. Zheng, C. Luna, T.-R. Li, N. T. Hoa, J. R. Clayton, K. P. White, F. C. Kafatos, G. K. Christophides, et al. (2005)
PNAS
102, 11420-11425
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
Assembly of polymorphic genomes: Algorithms and application to Ciona savignyi.
J. P. Vinson, D. B. Jaffe, K. O'Neill, E. K. Karlsson, N. Stange-Thomann, S. Anderson, J. P. Mesirov, N. Satoh, Y. Satou, C. Nusbaum, et al. (2005)
Genome Res.
15, 1127-1135
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
Estimating the tempo and mode of gene family evolution from comparative genomic data.
M. W. Hahn, T. De Bie, J. E. Stajich, C. Nguyen, and N. Cristianini (2005)
Genome Res.
15, 1153-1160
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
Malaria in the post-genomics era: light at the end of the tunnel or just another train?.
D L Gardiner, J S McCarthy, and K R Trenholme (2005)
Postgrad. Med. J.
81, 505-509
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
A Cellular Drosophila melanogaster Protein with Similarity to Baculovirus F Envelope Fusion Proteins.
Ultraconserved elements in insect genomes: A highly conserved intronic sequence implicated in the control of homothorax mRNA splicing.
E. A. Glazov, M. Pheasant, E. A. McGraw, G. Bejerano, and J. S. Mattick (2005)
Genome Res.
15, 800-808
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
AnoEST: Toward A. gambiae functional genomics.
E. V. Kriventseva, A. C. Koutsos, C. Blass, F. C. Kafatos, G. K. Christophides, and E. M. Zdobnov (2005)
Genome Res.
15, 893-899
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
Future Directions In Vaccines: The Payoffs Of Basic Research.
Evolution of Proteins and Gene Expression Levels are Coupled in Drosophila and are Independently Associated with mRNA Abundance, Protein Length, and Number of Protein-Protein Interactions.
B. Lemos, B. R. Bettencourt, C. D. Meiklejohn, and D. L. Hartl (2005)
Mol. Biol. Evol.
22, 1345-1354
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
REL1, a Homologue of Drosophila Dorsal, Regulates Toll Antifungal Immune Pathway in the Female Mosquito Aedes aegypti.
S. W. Shin, V. Kokoza, G. Bian, H.-M. Cheon, Y. J. Kim, and A. S. Raikhel (2005)
J. Biol. Chem.
280, 16499-16507
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
Identification of putative noncoding polyadenylated transcripts in Drosophila melanogaster.
J. L. Tupy, A. M. Bailey, G. Dailey, M. Evans-Holm, C. W. Siebel, S. Misra, S. E. Celniker, and G. M. Rubin (2005)
PNAS
102, 5495-5500
|Abstract »|Full Text »|PDF »
