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Science 27 March 1981:
Vol. 211. no. 4489, pp. 1390 - 1396
DOI: 10.1126/science.7466396
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Articles

Science, Vol 211, Issue 4489, 1390-1396
Copyright © 1981 by American Association for the Advancement of Science

articles

The evolution of cooperation

R Axelrod and WD Hamilton

Cooperation in organisms, whether bacteria or primates, has been a difficulty for evolutionary theory since Darwin. On the assumption that interactions between pairs of individuals occur on a probabilistic basis, a model is developed based on the concept of an evolutionarily stable strategy in the context of the Prisoner's Dilemma game. Deductions from the model, and the results of a computer tournament show how cooperation based on reciprocity can get started in an asocial world, can thrive while interacting with a wide range of other strategies, and can resist invasion once fully established. Potential applications include specific aspects of territoriality, mating, and disease.


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PNAS 100, 3531-3535
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Genesis of Suicide Terrorism.
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Science 299, 1534-1539
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Type III secretion systems and the evolution of mutualistic endosymbiosis.
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PNAS 99, 12397-12402
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When Talk Is Not Cheap: Substantive Penance and Expressions of Intent in Rebuilding Cooperation.
W. P. Bottom, K. Gibson, S. E. Daniels, and J. K. Murnighan (2002)
Organization Science 13, 497-513
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Selective impairment of reasoning about social exchange in a patient with bilateral limbic system damage.
V. E. Stone, L. Cosmides, J. Tooby, N. Kroll, and R. T. Knight (2002)
PNAS 99, 11531-11536
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Cross-cultural evidence of cognitive adaptations for social exchange among the Shiwiar of Ecuadorian Amazonia.
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PNAS 99, 11537-11542
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Volunteering as Red Queen Mechanism for Cooperation in Public Goods Games.
C. Hauert, S. De Monte, J. Hofbauer, and K. Sigmund (2002)
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Science 296, 69-72
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Partner Choice in Nitrogen-Fixation Mutualisms of Legumes and Rhizobia.
E. L. Simms and D. L. Taylor (2002)
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Declining altruism in medicine.
R. Jones (2002)
BMJ 324, 624-625
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Letters of Recommendation: An Evolutionary Psychological Perspective.
S. M. Colarelli, R. Hechanova-Alampay, and K. G. Canali (2002)
Human Relations 55, 315-344
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