Note to users. If you're seeing this message, it means that your browser cannot find this page's style/presentation instructions -- or possibly that you are using a browser that does not support current Web standards. Find out more about why this message is appearing, and what you can do to make your experience of our site the best it can be.

Science 15 August 1997:
Vol. 277. no. 5328, pp. 918 - 924
DOI: 10.1126/science.277.5328.918
Prev | Table of Contents | Next

Research Articles

Neighborhoods and Violent Crime: A Multilevel Study of Collective Efficacy

Robert J. Sampson, Stephen W. Raudenbush, Felton Earls

It is hypothesized that collective efficacy, defined as social cohesion among neighbors combined with their willingness to intervene on behalf of the common good, is linked to reduced violence. This hypothesis was tested on a 1995 survey of 8782 residents of 343 neighborhoods in Chicago, Illinois. Multilevel analyses showed that a measure of collective efficacy yields a high between-neighborhood reliability and is negatively associated with variations in violence, when individual-level characteristics, measurement error, and prior violence are controlled. Associations of concentrated disadvantage and residential instability with violence are largely mediated by collective efficacy.

R. J. Sampson is in the Department of Sociology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637 and is a Research Fellow of the American Bar Foundation, Chicago, IL 60611, USA. S. W. Raudenbush is at the College of Education, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA. F. Earls is the Principal Investigator of the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods and is at the School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115, USA.

Read the Full Text


THIS ARTICLE HAS BEEN CITED BY OTHER ARTICLES:
An Examination of Whether Coordinated Community Responses Affect Intimate Partner Violence.
L. A. Post, J. Klevens, C. D. Maxwell, G. A. Shelley, and E. Ingram (2010)
J Interpers Violence 25, 75-93
   Abstract »    PDF »
Urban ethnography and research integrity: Empirical and theoretical dimensions.
J. F. Short Jr and L. A. Hughes (2009)
Ethnography 10, 397-415
   Abstract »    PDF »
Psychosocial risk factors for coronary heart disease in UK South Asian men and women.
E D Williams, A Steptoe, J C Chambers, and J S Kooner (2009)
J Epidemiol Community Health 63, 986-991
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
TERRORIST THREATS AND POLICE PERFORMANCE: A Study of Israeli Communities.
D. Weisburd, B. Hasisi, T. Jonathan, and G. Aviv (2009)
Br. J. Criminol.
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
A Social Norms Approach to Legitimacy.
C. Horne (2009)
American Behavioral Scientist 53, 400-415
   Abstract »    PDF »
Homicide Patterns and Public Housing: The Case of Louisville, KY (1989-2007).
G. Suresh and G. F. Vito (2009)
Homicide Studies 13, 411-433
   Abstract »    PDF »
Toward a new criminology of genocide: theory, method, and politics.
R. L. Matsueda (2009)
Theoretical Criminology 13, 495-502
   PDF »
High Point Walking for Health: Creating Built and Social Environments That Support Walking in a Public Housing Community.
J. Krieger, J. Rabkin, D. Sharify, and L. Song (2009)
Am J Public Health 99, S593-S599
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Recruiting Participants for Neighborhood Effects Research: Strategies and Outcomes of the Twin Cities Walking Study.
J. M. Oakes, A. Forsyth, M. O. Hearst, and K. H. Schmitz (2009)
Environment and Behavior 41, 787-805
   Abstract »    PDF »
Enhancing Cultural and Contextual Intervention Strategies to Reduce HIV/AIDS Among African Americans.
G. E. Wyatt (2009)
Am J Public Health 99, 1941-1945
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
The Influence of Neighborhood Environment on Treatment Continuity and Rehospitalization in Dually Diagnosed Patients Discharged From Acute Inpatient Care.
G. J. Stahler, J. Mennis, R. Cotlar, and D. A. Baron (2009)
Am J Psychiatry 166, 1258-1268
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Intimate Partner Violence and Social Isolation Across the Rural/Urban Divide.
C. Lanier and M. O. Maume (2009)
Violence Against Women 15, 1311-1330
   Abstract »    PDF »
Neighborhood Disadvantage, Alcohol Use, and Violent Victimization.
S. Browning and P. Erickson (2009)
Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 7, 331-349
   Abstract »    PDF »
Social Capital, Social Control, and Changes in Victimization Rates.
J. Hawdon and J. Ryan (2009)
Crime Delinquency 55, 526-549
   Abstract »    PDF »
Community Violence, Social Support Networks, Ethnic Group Differences, and Male Perpetration of Intimate Partner Violence.
C. Raghavan, V. Rajah, K. Gentile, L. Collado, and A. M. Kavanagh (2009)
J Interpers Violence 24, 1615-1632
   Abstract »    PDF »
Measuring Community (Dis)Organizational Processes through Key Informant Analysis.
L. Pauwels and W. Hardyns (2009)
European Journal of Criminology 6, 401-417
   Abstract »    PDF »
City and/or Neighbourhood Determinants?: Studying Contextual Effects on Youth Delinquency.
G. Weijters, P. Scheepers, and J. Gerris (2009)
European Journal of Criminology 6, 439-455
   Abstract »    PDF »
Lead Exposure and Its Implications for Criminological Theory.
R. E. Narag, J. Pizarro, and C. Gibbs (2009)
Criminal Justice and Behavior 36, 954-973
   Abstract »    PDF »
Neighbourhood Change... Reason to Leave?.
P. Feijten and M. van Ham (2009)
Urban Stud 46, 2103-2122
   Abstract »    PDF »
A Test of Social Disorganization Theory in High-Risk Urban Neighborhoods.
B. Kingston, D. Huizinga, and D. S. Elliott (2009)
Youth Society 41, 53-79
   Abstract »    PDF »
Do Official Misconduct Data Tell the Same Story as the Individuals Who Live in Prison?.
D. M. Daggett and S. D. Camp (2009)
Criminal Justice Review 34, 428-449
   Abstract »    PDF »
Functional Fear and Public Insecurities about Crime.
J. Jackson and E. Gray (2009)
Br. J. Criminol.
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
An Exploration of DSM-Oriented Scales in the Prediction of Criminal Offending Among Urban American Youths.
D. Paquette Boots and J. Wareham (2009)
Criminal Justice and Behavior 36, 840-860
   Abstract »    PDF »
Preventable Mortality as a Predictor of Community Social Organisation: Examining Reverse Causality.
S. Feinberg (2009)
Urban Stud 46, 1829-1858
   Abstract »    PDF »
Immigration and Violent Crime: Citizenship Status and Social Disorganization.
C. Polczynski Olson, M. K. Laurikkala, L. Huff-Corzine, and J. Corzine (2009)
Homicide Studies 13, 227-241
   Abstract »    PDF »
Spatial Heterogeneity in the Effects of Immigration and Diversity on Neighborhood Homicide Rates.
C. Graif and R. J. Sampson (2009)
Homicide Studies 13, 242-260
   Abstract »    PDF »
Geographies of Trust.
W. M. Rahn, Kwang Suk Yoon, M. Garet, S. Lipson, and K. Loflin (2009)
American Behavioral Scientist 52, 1646-1663
   Abstract »    PDF »
Parent--Child Conflicts, School Troubles, and Differences in Delinquency Across Immigration Generations.
H. N. Bui (2009)
Crime Delinquency 55, 412-441
   Abstract »    PDF »
Neighborhood Characteristics and Change in Depressive Symptoms Among Older Residents of New York City.
J. R. Beard, M. Cerda, S. Blaney, J. Ahern, D. Vlahov, and S. Galea (2009)
Am J Public Health 99, 1308-1314
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Neighborhood Social Capital as Differential Social Organization: Resident and Leadership Dimensions.
R. J. Sampson and C. Graif (2009)
American Behavioral Scientist 52, 1579-1605
   Abstract »    PDF »
The Relationship of Neighborhood Climate to Perceived Social Support and Mental Health in Older Hispanic Immigrants in Miami, Florida.
S. C. Brown, C. A. Mason, A. R. Spokane, M. C. Cruza-Guet, B. Lopez, and J. Szapocznik (2009)
J Aging Health 21, 431-459
   Abstract »    PDF »
Assessing the Relationships Among Delinquent Male Students' Disruptive and Violent Behavior and Staff's Proactive and Reactive Behavior in a Secure Residential Treatment Center.
M. Rozalski, E. Drasgow, F. Drasgow, and M. Yell (2009)
Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 17, 80-92
   Abstract »    PDF »
Social Capital and Health Care Access: A Systematic Review.
K. Pitkin Derose and D. M. Varda (2009)
Med Care Res Rev 66, 272-306
   Abstract »    PDF »
Who Participates and Why: Building a Process Model of Citizen Participation.
P. G. Foster-Fishman, S. J. Pierce, and L. A. Van Egeren (2009)
Health Educ Behav 36, 550-569
   Abstract »    PDF »
Hiding in Plain Sight: Community Organization, Naive Trust and Terrorism.
J. Hawdon and J. Ryan (2009)
Current Sociology 57, 323-343
   Abstract »    PDF »
Race, Ethnicity, Class, and Noncompliance with Juvenile Court Supervision.
H. Smith, N. Rodriguez, and M. S. Zatz (2009)
The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 623, 108-120
   Abstract »    PDF »
Association Between Neighborhood Context and Smoking Prevalence Among Asian Americans.
N. R. Kandula, M. Wen, E. A. Jacobs, and D. S. Lauderdale (2009)
Am J Public Health 99, 885-892
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Five Essential Elements of Immediate and Mid-Term Mass Trauma Intervention: Empirical Evidence.
S. E. Hobfoll, P. Watson, C. C. Bell, R. A. Bryant, M. J. Brymer, M. J. Friedman, M. Friedman, B. P.R. Gersons, J. T.V.M d. Jong, C. M. Layne, et al. (2009)
Focus 7, 221-242
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
The Brown Legacy and the O'Connor Challenge:Transforming Schools in the Images of Children's Potential.
S. W. Raudenbush (2009)
Educational Researcher 38, 169-180
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Is a conservative just a liberal who has been mugged?: Exploring the origins of punitive views.
A. King and S. Maruna (2009)
Punishment Society 11, 147-169
   Abstract »    PDF »
Personal Social Capital Scale: an instrument for health and behavioral research.
X. Chen, B. Stanton, J. Gong, X. Fang, and X. Li (2009)
Health Educ. Res. 24, 306-317
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Family Structure, Family Processes, Economic Factors, and Delinquency: Similarities and Differences by Race and Ethnicity.
M. J. Leiber, K. Y. Mack, and R. A. Featherstone (2009)
Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 7, 79-99
   Abstract »    PDF »
The Link Between Juvenile Offending and Victimization: The Influence of Risky Lifestyles, Social Bonding, and Individual Characteristics.
Xiaojin Chen (2009)
Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 7, 119-135
   Abstract »    PDF »
The Association Between County-Level Injury Rates and Racial Segregation Revisited: A Multilevel Analysis.
A. Fabio, E. K. Sauber-Schatz, K. E. Barbour, and W. Li (2009)
Am J Public Health 99, 748-753
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Contribution of Race/Ethnicity and Country of Origin to Variations in Lifetime Reported Asthma: Evidence for a Nativity Advantage.
S. V. Subramanian, H.-J. Jun, I. Kawachi, and R. J. Wright (2009)
Am J Public Health 99, 690-697
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Neighborhood Socioeconomic and Social Factors and School Achievement in Boys and Girls.
M. Drukker, F. J. M. Feron, R. Mengelers, and J. Van Os (2009)
The Journal of Early Adolescence 29, 285-306
   Abstract »    PDF »
Views of Formal and Informal Crime Control and Their Correlates in China.
Shanhe Jiang and E. G. Lambert (2009)
International Criminal Justice Review 19, 5-24
   Abstract »    PDF »
Premigration Exposure to Political Violence and Perpetration of Intimate Partner Violence Among Immigrant Men in Boston.
J. Gupta, D. Acevedo-Garcia, D. Hemenway, M. R. Decker, A. Raj, and J. G. Silverman (2009)
Am J Public Health 99, 462-469
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
"Epidemiological Criminology": Coming Full Circle.
T. A. Akers and M. M. Lanier (2009)
Am J Public Health 99, 397-402
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
In the Eye of the Impulsive Beholder: The Interaction Between Impulsivity and Perceived Informal Social Control on Offending.
S. Jones and D. R. Lynam (2009)
Criminal Justice and Behavior 36, 307-321
   Abstract »    PDF »
Women's Fatalistic Suicide in Iran: A Partial Test of Durkheim in an Islamic Republic.
A. Aliverdinia and W. A. Pridemore (2009)
Violence Against Women 15, 307-320
   Abstract »    PDF »
Neighborhood Characteristics and Disability in Older Adults.
J. R. Beard, S. Blaney, M. Cerda, V. Frye, G. S. Lovasi, D. Ompad, A. Rundle, and D. Vlahov (2009)
J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 64B, 252-257
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
The Relationship of Built Environment to Perceived Social Support and Psychological Distress in Hispanic Elders: The Role of "Eyes on the Street".
S. C. Brown, C. A. Mason, J. L. Lombard, F. Martinez, E. Plater-Zyberk, A. R. Spokane, F. L. Newman, H. Pantin, and J. Szapocznik (2009)
J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 64B, 234-246
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Social Determinants: Taking the Social Context of Asthma Seriously.
D. R. Williams, M. Sternthal, and R. J. Wright (2009)
Pediatrics 123, S174-S184
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Neighborhood Social Cohesion and Disorder in Relation to Walking in Community-Dwelling Older Adults: A Multilevel Analysis.
C. F. Mendes de Leon, K. A. Cagney, J. L. Bienias, L. L. Barnes, K. A. Skarupski, P. A. Scherr, and D. A. Evans (2009)
J Aging Health 21, 155-171
   Abstract »    PDF »
Neighborhood Context and Infant Birthweight Among Recent Immigrant Mothers: A Multilevel Analysis.
M. L. Urquia, J. W. Frank, R. H. Glazier, R. Moineddin, F. I. Matheson, and A. J. Gagnon (2009)
Am J Public Health 99, 285-293
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Using Community Arts Events to Enhance Collective Efficacy and Community Engagement toAddress Depression in an African American Community.
B. Chung, L. Jones, A. Jones, C. E. Corbett, T. Booker, K. B. Wells, and B. Collins (2009)
Am J Public Health 99, 237-244
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Neuropsychological Deficits, Low Self-Control, and Delinquent Involvement: Toward a Biosocial Explanation of Delinquency.
M. Ratchford and K. M. Beaver (2009)
Criminal Justice and Behavior 36, 147-162
   Abstract »    PDF »
Evaluating the Predictive Validity of the Compas Risk and Needs Assessment System.
T. Brennan, W. Dieterich, and B. Ehret (2009)
Criminal Justice and Behavior 36, 21-40
   Abstract »    PDF »
Pat Moynihan Thinks about Families.
J. Q. Wilson (2009)
The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 621, 28-33
   PDF »
Won't You be My Neighbor?: Using an Ecological Approach to Examine the Impact of Community on Revictimization.
M. A. Obasaju, F. L. Palin, C. Jacobs, P. Anderson, and N. J. Kaslow (2009)
J Interpers Violence 24, 38-53
   Abstract »    PDF »
Cause or Consequence?: Suburbanization and Crime in U.S. Metropolitan Areas.
P. A. Jargowsky and Y. Park (2009)
Crime Delinquency 55, 28-50
   Abstract »    PDF »
Assessing Static and Dynamic Influences on Inmate Violence Levels.
B. Steiner (2009)
Crime Delinquency 55, 134-161
   Abstract »    PDF »
Homicide in post-Soviet Belarus: urban-rural trends.
A. Stickley, M. Leinsalu, and Y. E. Razvodovsky (2009)
Eur J Public Health 19, 117-120
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Psychopathy Subtypes Among African American County Jail Inmates.
M. T. Swogger, Z. Walsh, and D. S. Kosson (2008)
Criminal Justice and Behavior 35, 1484-1499
   Abstract »    PDF »
Family Structure and Mediators of Adolescent Drug Use.
C. L. Broman, Xin Li, and M. Reckase (2008)
Journal of Family Issues 29, 1625-1649
   Abstract »    PDF »
Estimating Co-Occurring Behavioral Trajectories Within a Neighborhood Context: A Case Study of Multivariate Transition Models for Clustered Data.
M. Cerda, B. N. Sanchez, S. Galea, M. Tracy, and S. L. Buka (2008)
Am. J. Epidemiol. 168, 1190-1203
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
The impact of a large reduction in the price of alcohol on area differences in interpersonal violence: a natural experiment based on aggregate data.
K Herttua, P Makela, P Martikainen, and R Siren (2008)
J Epidemiol Community Health 62, 995-1001
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Space Theft or Space Transfer: The Nature of Crime-Induced Spatial Partitioning and Control in Enclosed Neighborhoods in Ibadan and Johannesburg.
O. O. Fabiyi (2008)
Space and Culture 11, 361-382
   Abstract »    PDF »
A Multilevel Analysis of the Relationships among Communal School Organization, Student Bonding, and Delinquency.
A. A. Payne (2008)
Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 45, 429-455
   Abstract »    PDF »
Social Capital and Health: Starting to Make Sense of the Role of Generalized Trust and Reciprocity.
S. Abbott and D. Freeth (2008)
J Health Psychol 13, 874-883
   Abstract »    PDF »
Theoretical Predictors of Delinquency among Public School Students in a Mid-Southern State: The Roles of Context and Gender.
N. C. Lowe, D. C. May, and P. Elrod (2008)
Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 6, 343-362
   Abstract »    PDF »
Using directed acyclic graphs to guide analyses of neighbourhood health effects: an introduction.
N L Fleischer and A V D. Roux (2008)
J Epidemiol Community Health 62, 842-846
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Modelling measurement errors and category misclassifications in multilevel models.
H. Goldstein, D. Kounali, and A. Robinson (2008)
Statistical Modeling 8, 243-261
   Abstract »    PDF »
Mobility Disability and the Urban Built Environment.
P. Clarke, J. A. Ailshire, M. Bader, J. D. Morenoff, and J. S. House (2008)
Am. J. Epidemiol. 168, 506-513
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Inmate Social Ties and the Transition to Society: Does Visitation Reduce Recidivism?.
W. D. Bales and D. P. Mears (2008)
Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 45, 287-321
   Abstract »    PDF »
The Role of Neighborhood Environment and Risk of Intimate Partner Femicide in a Large Urban Area.
V. Frye, S. Galea, M. Tracy, A. Bucciarelli, S. Putnam, and S. Wilt (2008)
Am J Public Health 98, 1473-1479
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Individual-Level and Socio-Structural Characteristics of Violence: An Emergency Department Study.
D. J. Boyle and C. Hassett-Walker (2008)
J Interpers Violence 23, 1011-1026
   Abstract »    PDF »
Assessing the Race-Crime and Ethnicity-Crime Relationship in a Sample of Serious Adolescent Delinquents.
A. R. Piquero and R. W. Brame (2008)
Crime Delinquency 54, 390-422
   Abstract »    PDF »
Social Disorganization, Drug Market Activity, and Neighborhood Violent Crime.
R. Martinez Jr, R. Rosenfeld, and D. Mares (2008)
Urban Affairs Review 43, 846-874
   Abstract »    PDF »
The role of collective efficacy in exercise adherence: a qualitative study of spousal support and Type 2 diabetes management.
E. A. Beverly and L. A. Wray (2008)
Health Educ. Res.
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Minority Ethnic Groups in the Dutch Housing Market: Spatial Segregation, Relocation Dynamics and Housing Policy.
G. Bolt, R. van Kempen, and M. van Ham (2008)
Urban Stud 45, 1359-1384
   Abstract »    PDF »
Variations in Mental Health Problems, Substance Use, and Delinquency Between African American and Caucasian Juvenile Offenders: Implications for Reentry Services.
M. G. Vaughn, J. M. Wallace Jr., L. E. Davis, G. T. Fernandes, and M. O. Howard (2008)
Int J Offender Ther Comp Criminol 52, 311-329
   Abstract »    PDF »
Effects of Neighborhood Resources on Aggressive and Delinquent Behaviors Among Urban Youths.
B. E. Molnar, M. Cerda, A. L. Roberts, and S. L. Buka (2008)
Am J Public Health 98, 1086-1093
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Legitimacy, Trust, Social Capital, and Policing Styles: A Theoretical Statement.
J. Hawdon (2008)
Police Quarterly 11, 182-201
   Abstract »    PDF »
What Matters: The Formation of Attitudes Toward the Police.
B. Bridenball and P. Jesilow (2008)
Police Quarterly 11, 151-181
   Abstract »    PDF »
Relation between Neighborhood Environments and Obesity in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis.
M. S. Mujahid, A. V. D. Roux, M. Shen, D. Gowda, B. Sanchez, S. Shea, D. R. Jacobs Jr., and S. A. Jackson (2008)
Am. J. Epidemiol. 167, 1349-1357
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Low Workplace Social Capital as a Predictor of Depression: The Finnish Public Sector Study.
A. Kouvonen, T. Oksanen, J. Vahtera, M. Stafford, R. Wilkinson, J. Schneider, A. Vaananen, M. Virtanen, S. J. Cox, J. Pentti, et al. (2008)
Am. J. Epidemiol. 167, 1143-1151
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Associations of neighbourhood greenness with physical and mental health: do walking, social coherence and local social interaction explain the relationships?.
T Sugiyama, E Leslie, B Giles-Corti, and N Owen (2008)
J Epidemiol Community Health 62, e9
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Community Violence, Interpartner Conflict, Parenting, and Social Support as Predictors of the Social Competence of African American Preschool Children.
L. M. Oravecz, S. A. Koblinsky, and S. M. Randolph (2008)
Journal of Black Psychology 34, 192-216
   Abstract »    PDF »
Influences on the Sense of Neighborhood: Case of Slovenia.
M. Filipovic (2008)
Urban Affairs Review 43, 718-732
   Abstract »    PDF »
Early Adolescent Pathways of Antisocial Behaviors in Poor, Inner-City Neighborhoods.
N. S. Park, B. S. Lee, J. M. Bolland, A. T. Vazsonyi, and Fei Sun (2008)
The Journal of Early Adolescence 28, 185-205
   Abstract »    PDF »


To Advertise     Find Products

Science. ISSN 0036-8075 (print), 1095-9203 (online)