Note to users. If you're seeing this message, it means that your browser cannot find this page's style/presentation instructions -- or possibly that you are using a browser that does not support current Web standards. Find out more about why this message is appearing, and what you can do to make your experience of our site the best it can be.
Science Careers Booklet

Site Tools

  • AAAS
  • Subscribe
  • Feedback

Site Search

Search Advanced

Science 15 March 1996:
Vol. 271. no. 5255, pp. 1582 - 1586
DOI: 10.1126/science.271.5255.1582
Prev | Table of Contents | Next

Reports

HIV-1 Dynamics in Vivo: Virion Clearance Rate, Infected Cell Life-Span, and Viral Generation Time

Alan S. Perelson, Avidan U. Neumann, Martin Markowitz, John M. Leonard, David D. Ho *

A new mathematical model was used to analyze a detailed set of human immunodeficiency virus-type 1 (HIV-1) viral load data collected from five infected individuals after the administration of a potent inhibitor of HIV-1 protease. Productively infected cells were estimated to have, on average, a life-span of 2.2 days (half-life t1/2 = 1.6 days), and plasma virions were estimated to have a mean life-span of 0.3 days (t1/2 = 0.24 days). The estimated average total HIV-1 production was 10.3 × 109 virions per day, which is substantially greater than previous minimum estimates. The results also suggest that the minimum duration of the HIV-1 life cycle in vivo is 1.2 days on average, and that the average HIV-1 generation time--defined as the time from release of a virion until it infects another cell and causes the release of a new generation of viral particles--is 2.6 days. These findings on viral dynamics provide not only a kinetic picture of HIV-1 pathogenesis, but also theoretical principles to guide the development of treatment strategies.

A. S. Perelson and A. U. Neumann, Theoretical Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA.
M. Markowitz and D. D. Ho, Aaron Diamond AIDS Research Center, 455 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA.
J. M. Leonard, Pharmaceutical Products Division, Abbott Laboratories, Abbott Park, IL 60064, USA.
* To whom correspondence should be addressed.


THIS ARTICLE HAS BEEN CITED BY OTHER ARTICLES:
Recombination increases human immunodeficiency virus fitness, but not necessarily diversity.
N. N. V. Vijay, Vasantika, R. Ajmani, A. S. Perelson, and N. M. Dixit (2008)
J. Gen. Virol. 89, 1467-1477
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Paucity of CD4+ CCR5+ T Cells May Prevent Transmission of Simian Immunodeficiency Virus in Natural Nonhuman Primate Hosts by Breast-Feeding.
I. Pandrea, R. Onanga, S. Souquiere, A. Mouinga-Ondeme, O. Bourry, M. Makuwa, P. Rouquet, G. Silvestri, F. Simon, P. Roques, et al. (2008)
J. Virol. 82, 5501-5509
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Why are there different dynamics in the selection of drug resistance in HIV and hepatitis B and C viruses?.
V. Soriano, A. S. Perelson, and F. Zoulim (2008)
J. Antimicrob. Chemother.
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Immune Activation Driven by CTLA-4 Blockade Augments Viral Replication at Mucosal Sites in Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Infection.
V. Cecchinato, E. Tryniszewska, Z. M. Ma, M. Vaccari, A. Boasso, W.-P. Tsai, C. Petrovas, D. Fuchs, J.-M. Heraud, D. Venzon, et al. (2008)
J. Immunol. 180, 5439-5447
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Simian Immunodeficiency Virus SIVagm Dynamics in African Green Monkeys.
I. Pandrea, R. M. Ribeiro, R. Gautam, T. Gaufin, M. Pattison, M. Barnes, C. Monjure, C. Stoulig, J. Dufour, W. Cyprian, et al. (2008)
J. Virol. 82, 3713-3724
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Short-Lived Infected Cells Support Virus Replication in Sooty Mangabeys Naturally Infected with Simian Immunodeficiency Virus: Implications for AIDS Pathogenesis.
S. N. Gordon, R. M. Dunham, J. C. Engram, J. Estes, Z. Wang, N. R. Klatt, M. Paiardini, I. V. Pandrea, C. Apetrei, D. L. Sodora, et al. (2008)
J. Virol. 82, 3725-3735
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Decay dynamics of HIV-1 depend on the inhibited stages of the viral life cycle.
(2008)
PNAS 105, 4832-4837
Low-level viremia persists for at least 7 years in patients on suppressive antiretroviral therapy.
S. Palmer, F. Maldarelli, A. Wiegand, B. Bernstein, G. J. Hanna, S. C. Brun, D. J. Kempf, J. W. Mellors, J. M. Coffin, and M. S. King (2008)
PNAS 105, 3879-3884
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Severe Depletion of CD4+ CD25+ Regulatory T Cells from the Intestinal Lamina Propria but Not Peripheral Blood or Lymph Nodes during Acute Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Infection.
A. J. Chase, A. R. Sedaghat, J. R. German, L. Gama, M. C. Zink, J. E. Clements, and R. F. Siliciano (2007)
J. Virol. 81, 12748-12757
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Reverse transcription of the HIV-1 pandemic.
A. Basavapathruni and K. S. Anderson (2007)
FASEB J 21, 3795-3808
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Determination of virus burst size in vivo using a single-cycle SIV in rhesus macaques.
H. Y. Chen, M. Di Mascio, A. S. Perelson, D. D. Ho, and L. Zhang (2007)
PNAS 104, 19079-19084
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Predominant Mode of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Transfer between T Cells Is Mediated by Sustained Env-Dependent Neutralization-Resistant Virological Synapses.
P. Chen, W. Hubner, M. A. Spinelli, and B. K. Chen (2007)
J. Virol. 81, 12582-12595
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Suppression of Viremia and Evolution of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Drug Resistance in a Macaque Model for Antiretroviral Therapy.
Z. Ambrose, S. Palmer, V. F. Boltz, M. Kearney, K. Larsen, P. Polacino, L. Flanary, K. Oswald, M. Piatak Jr., J. Smedley, et al. (2007)
J. Virol. 81, 12145-12155
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Acute Loss of Intestinal CD4+ T Cells Is Not Predictive of Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Virulence.
I. V. Pandrea, R. Gautam, R. M. Ribeiro, J. M. Brenchley, I. F. Butler, M. Pattison, T. Rasmussen, P. A. Marx, G. Silvestri, A. A. Lackner, et al. (2007)
J. Immunol. 179, 3035-3046
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Segmental modeling of changing viral load to assess drug resistance in HIV infection.
H. Liang (2007)
Statistical Methods in Medical Research 16, 365-373
   Abstract »    PDF »
Depletion of CD8+ Cells in Sooty Mangabey Monkeys Naturally Infected with Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Reveals Limited Role for Immune Control of Virus Replication in a Natural Host Species.
A. P. Barry, G. Silvestri, J. T. Safrit, B. Sumpter, N. Kozyr, H. M. McClure, S. I. Staprans, and M. B. Feinberg (2007)
J. Immunol. 178, 8002-8012
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
HIV-1 specific CTLs effectively suppress replication of HIV-1 in HIV-1 infected macrophages.
M. Fujiwara and M. Takiguchi (2007)
Blood 109, 4832-4838
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
An HIV-Preventive Intervention for Youth Living With HIV.
M. Lightfoot, M. J. Rotheram-Borus, and H. Tevendale (2007)
Behav Modif 31, 345-363
   Abstract »    PDF »
In vivo CD8+ T cell control of immunodeficiency virus infection in humans and macaques.
B. Asquith and A. R. McLean (2007)
PNAS 104, 6365-6370
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Synergy of Small Molecular Inhibitors of Hepatitis C Virus Replication Directed at Multiple Viral Targets.
D. L. Wyles, K. A. Kaihara, F. Vaida, and R. T. Schooley (2007)
J. Virol. 81, 3005-3008
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Understanding the Failure of CD8+ T-Cell Vaccination against Simian/Human Immunodeficiency Virus.
R. J. De Boer (2007)
J. Virol. 81, 2838-2848
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Mechanisms of Gastrointestinal CD4+ T-Cell Depletion during Acute and Early Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Infection.
S. Mehandru, M. A. Poles, K. Tenner-Racz, V. Manuelli, P. Jean-Pierre, P. Lopez, A. Shet, A. Low, H. Mohri, D. Boden, et al. (2007)
J. Virol. 81, 599-612
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
The HIV positive selection mutation database.
C. Pan, J. Kim, L. Chen, Q. Wang, and C. Lee (2007)
Nucleic Acids Res. 35, D371-D375
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Dual Activity of Phosphorothioate CpG Oligodeoxynucleotides on HIV: Reactivation of Latent Provirus and Inhibition of Productive Infection in Human T Cells.
C. SCHELLER, A. ULLRICH, S. LAMLA, U. DITTMER, A. RETHWILM, and E. KOUTSILIERI (2006)
Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1091, 540-547
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
In vitro modeling of the HIV-macrophage reservoir.
A. Brown, H. Zhang, P. Lopez, C. A. Pardo, and S. Gartner (2006)
J. Leukoc. Biol. 80, 1127-1135
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Nef Alleles from Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1-Infected Long-Term-Nonprogressor Hemophiliacs with or without Late Disease Progression Are Defective in Enhancing Virus Replication and CD4 Down-Regulation.
A. Crotti, F. Neri, D. Corti, S. Ghezzi, S. Heltai, A. Baur, G. Poli, E. Santagostino, and E. Vicenzi (2006)
J. Virol. 80, 10663-10674
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Vpr Induces DNA Replication Stress In Vitro and In Vivo.
E. S. Zimmerman, M. P. Sherman, J. L. Blackett, J. A. Neidleman, C. Kreis, P. Mundt, S. A. Williams, M. Warmerdam, J. Kahn, F. M. Hecht, et al. (2006)
J. Virol. 80, 10407-10418
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Monocyte-derived macrophages and myeloid cell lines as targets of HIV-1 replication and persistence.
E. Cassol, M. Alfano, P. Biswas, and G. Poli (2006)
J. Leukoc. Biol. 80, 1018-1030
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Sequence determinants of breakpoint location during HIV-1 intersubtype recombination.
H. A. Baird, R. Galetto, Y. Gao, E. Simon-Loriere, M. Abreha, J. Archer, J. Fan, D. L. Robertson, E. J. Arts, and M. Negroni (2006)
Nucleic Acids Res.
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Rapid Viral Decay in Simian Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Macaques Receiving Quadruple Antiretroviral Therapy.
E. Brandin, R. Thorstensson, S. Bonhoeffer, and J. Albert (2006)
J. Virol. 80, 9861-9864
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Kinetics of influenza a virus infection in humans..
P. Baccam, C. Beauchemin, C. A. Macken, F. G. Hayden, and A. S. Perelson (2006)
J. Virol. 80, 7590-7599
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Contribution of vpu, env, and nef to CD4 down-modulation and resistance of human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected T cells to superinfection..
S. Wildum, M. Schindler, J. Munch, and F. Kirchhoff (2006)
J. Virol. 80, 8047-8059
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Effects of random mutations in the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 transcriptional promoter on viral fitness in different host cell environments..
T. van Opijnen, M. C. Boerlijst, and B. Berkhout (2006)
J. Virol. 80, 6678-6685
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Quantification of Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIVpco) in peripheral blood mononuclear cells, lymph nodes and plasma of naturally infected cougars..
D. J. Blake, J. Graham, and M. Poss (2006)
J. Gen. Virol. 87, 967-975
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Modeling and Estimation of Replication Fitness of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 In Vitro Experiments by Using a Growth Competition Assay.
H. Wu, Y. Huang, C. Dykes, D. Liu, J. Ma, A. S. Perelson, and L. M. Demeter (2006)
J. Virol. 80, 2380-2389
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
The Vif and Vpr accessory proteins independently cause HIV-1-induced T cell cytopathicity and cell cycle arrest.
K. Sakai, J. Dimas, and M. J. Lenardo (2006)
PNAS 103, 3369-3374
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Two types of cytotoxic lymphocyte regulation explain kinetics of immune response to human immunodeficiency virus.
I. M. Rouzine, R. A. Sergeev, and A. I. Glushtsov (2006)
PNAS 103, 666-671
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Neutralizing antibody responses drive the evolution of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 envelope during recent HIV infection.
S. D. W. Frost, T. Wrin, D. M. Smith, S. L. K. Pond, Y. Liu, E. Paxinos, C. Chappey, J. Galovich, J. Beauchaine, C. J. Petropoulos, et al. (2005)
PNAS 102, 18514-18519
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Variants That Differ in Pathogenicity Differ in Fitness under Rapid Cell Turnover Conditions.
Y. Voronin, J. Overbaugh, and M. Emerman (2005)
J. Virol. 79, 15091-15098
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
A genetic-algorithm approach to simulating human immunodeficiency virus evolution reveals the strong impact of multiply infected cells and recombination.
G. Bocharov, N. J. Ford, J. Edwards, T. Breinig, S. Wain-Hobson, and A. Meyerhans (2005)
J. Gen. Virol. 86, 3109-3118
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Stochastic Interplay between Mutation and Recombination during the Acquisition of Drug Resistance Mutations in Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1.
C. L. Althaus and S. Bonhoeffer (2005)
J. Virol. 79, 13572-13578
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Extensive editing of a small fraction of human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 genomes by four APOBEC3 cytidine deaminases.
R. Mahieux, R. Suspene, F. Delebecque, M. Henry, O. Schwartz, S. Wain-Hobson, and J.-P. Vartanian (2005)
J. Gen. Virol. 86, 2489-2494
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Antigenic Stimulation Specifically Reactivates the Replication of Archived Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Genomes in Chronically Infected Macaques.
C. Renoux, S. Wain-Hobson, B. Hurtrel, and R. Cheynier (2005)
J. Virol. 79, 11231-11238
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Evolution of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Protease Genotypes and Phenotypes In Vivo under Selective Pressure of the Protease Inhibitor Ritonavir.
W. Resch, N. Parkin, T. Watkins, J. Harris, and R. Swanstrom (2005)
J. Virol. 79, 10638-10649
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Compartmentalized Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Present in Cerebrospinal Fluid Is Produced by Short-Lived Cells.
P. R. Harrington, D. W. Haas, K. Ritola, and R. Swanstrom (2005)
J. Virol. 79, 7959-7966
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
HIV dynamics with multiple infections of target cells.
N. M. Dixit and A. S. Perelson (2005)
PNAS 102, 8198-8203
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
A functional CD8+ cell assay reveals individual variation in CD8+ cell antiviral efficacy and explains differences in human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 proviral load.
B. Asquith, A. J. Mosley, A. Barfield, S. E. F. Marshall, A. Heaps, P. Goon, E. Hanon, Y. Tanaka, G. P. Taylor, and C. R. M. Bangham (2005)
J. Gen. Virol. 86, 1515-1523
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
A Novel Assay Allows Genotyping of the Latent Reservoir for Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 in the Resting CD4+ T Cells of Viremic Patients.
D. Monie, R. P. Simmons, R. E. Nettles, T. L. Kieffer, Y. Zhou, H. Zhang, S. Karmon, R. Ingersoll, K. Chadwick, H. Zhang, et al. (2005)
J. Virol. 79, 5185-5202
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
In Vivo Evidence for Instability of Episomal Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 cDNA.
M. Sharkey, K. Triques, D. R. Kuritzkes, and M. Stevenson (2005)
J. Virol. 79, 5203-5210
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Evaluation of HIV-1 kinetic models using quantitative discrimination analysis.
A. L. Knorr and R. Srivastava (2005)
Bioinformatics 21, 1668-1677
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Analysis of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Cytopathicity by Using a New Method for Quantitating Viral Dynamics in Cell Culture.
C. Speirs, E. van Nimwegen, D. Bolton, M. Zavolan, M. Duvall, S. Angleman, R. Siegel, A. S. Perelson, and M. J. Lenardo (2005)
J. Virol. 79, 4025-4032
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Increased Multinucleoside Drug Resistance and Decreased Replicative Capacity of a Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Variant with an 8-Amino-Acid Insert in the Reverse Transcriptase.
L. van der Hoek, N. Back, M. F. Jebbink, A. de Ronde, M. Bakker, S. Jurriaans, P. Reiss, N. Parkin, and B. Berkhout (2005)
J. Virol. 79, 3536-3543
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Immunologic Pressure within Class I-Restricted Cognate Human Immunodeficiency Virus Epitopes during Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy.
J. P. Casazza, M. R. Betts, B. J. Hill, J. M. Brenchley, D. A. Price, D. C. Douek, and R. A. Koup (2005)
J. Virol. 79, 3653-3663
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Impact of bone marrow hematopoiesis failure on T-cell generation during pathogenic simian immunodeficiency virus infection in macaques.
H. Thiebot, B. Vaslin, S. Derdouch, J.-M. Bertho, F. Mouthon, S. Prost, G. Gras, P. Ducouret, D. Dormont, and R. Le Grand (2005)
Blood 105, 2403-2409
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Movies, measurement, and modeling: the three Ms of mechanistic immunology.
C. Witt, S. Raychaudhuri, and A. K. Chakraborty (2005)
J. Exp. Med. 201, 501-504
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Antiviral Activity of CYC202 in HIV-1-infected Cells.
E. Agbottah, C. de La Fuente, S. Nekhai, A. Barnett, A. Gianella-Borradori, A. Pumfery, and F. Kashanchi (2005)
J. Biol. Chem. 280, 3029-3042
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Using Temporally Spaced Sequences to Simultaneously Estimate Migration Rates, Mutation Rate and Population Sizes in Measurably Evolving Populations.
G. Ewing, G. Nicholls, and A. Rodrigo (2004)
Genetics 168, 2407-2420
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Rapid Human Immunodeficiency Virus Decay in Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART)-Experienced Children after Starting Mega-HAART.
N. Plipat, P. K. Ruan, T. Fenton, and R. Yogev (2004)
J. Virol. 78, 11272-11275
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Chronic Immune Activation Associated with Chronic Helminthic and Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infections: Role of Hyporesponsiveness and Anergy.
G. Borkow and Z. Bentwich (2004)
Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 17, 1012-1030
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 (HIV-1) Antigen Secretion by Latently Infected Resting CD4+ T Lymphocytes from HIV-1-Infected Individuals.
J.-M. Fondere, G. Petitjean, M.-F. Huguet, S. L. Salhi, V. Baillat, A. Macura-Biegum, P. Becquart, J. Reynes, and J.-P. Vendrell (2004)
J. Virol. 78, 10536-10542
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Multiplicity of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infections in Lymphoid Tissue.
N. M. Dixit and A. S. Perelson (2004)
J. Virol. 78, 8942-8945
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Selection in Context: Patterns of Natural Selection in the Glycoprotein 120 Region of Human Immunodeficiency Virus 1 Within Infected Individuals.
A. R. Templeton, R. A. Reichert, A. E. Weisstein, X.-F. Yu, and R. B. Markham (2004)
Genetics 167, 1547-1561
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Detection of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Antiretroviral Resistance Mutations by High-Density DNA Probe Arrays.
R. Gonzalez, B. Masquelier, H. Fleury, B. Lacroix, A. Troesch, G. Vernet, and J. N. Telles (2004)
J. Clin. Microbiol. 42, 2907-2912
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Roles of Target Cells and Virus-Specific Cellular Immunity in Primary Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Infection.
R. R. Regoes, R. Antia, D. A. Garber, G. Silvestri, M. B. Feinberg, and S. I. Staprans (2004)
J. Virol. 78, 4866-4875
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
CSF quinolinic acid levels are determined by local HIV infection: cross-sectional analysis and modelling of dynamics following antiretroviral therapy.
M. Valle, R. W. Price, A. Nilsson, M. Heyes, and D. Verotta (2004)
Brain 127, 1047-1060
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Positive Selection Detection in 40,000 Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Type 1 Sequences Automatically Identifies Drug Resistance and Positive Fitness Mutations in HIV Protease and Reverse Transcriptase.
L. Chen, A. Perlina, and C. J. Lee (2004)
J. Virol. 78, 3722-3732
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Benefits and limitations of testing for resistance to HIV drugs.
D. D. Richman (2004)
J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 53, 555-557
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Unselected Mutations in the Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Genome Are Mostly Nonsynonymous and Often Deleterious.
F. Gao, Y. Chen, D. N. Levy, J. A. Conway, T. B. Kepler, and H. Hui (2004)
J. Virol. 78, 2426-2433
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Influence of Random Genetic Drift on Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 env Evolution During Chronic Infection.
D. Shriner, R. Shankarappa, M. A. Jensen, D. C. Nickle, J. E. Mittler, J. B. Margolick, and J. I. Mullins (2004)
Genetics 166, 1155-1164
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Unifying the Epidemiological and Evolutionary Dynamics of Pathogens.
B. T. Grenfell, O. G. Pybus, J. R. Gog, J. L. N. Wood, J. M. Daly, J. A. Mumford, and E. C. Holmes (2004)
Science 303, 327-332
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Predicting the therapeutic response in patients with chronic hepatitis C: the role of viral kinetic studies.
P. Ferenci (2004)
J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 53, 15-18
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Bystander Killing during Avian Leukosis Virus Subgroup B Infection Requires TVBS3 Signaling.
F. Diaz-Griffero, S. A. Hoschander, and J. Brojatsch (2003)
J. Virol. 77, 12552-12561
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Correspondence re: S. Maula et al., Intratumoral Lymphatics Are Essential for the Metastatic Spread and Prognosis in Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Head and Neck. Cancer Res., 63: 1920-1926, 2003..
T. P. Padera, Y. Boucher, R. K. Jain, L. M. Wein, P. E. Holden, and D. H. Kirn (2003)
Cancer Res. 63, 8555-8557
   Full Text »    PDF »
The contribution of monocyte infection and trafficking to viral persistence, and maintenance of the viral reservoir in HIV infection.
S. Crowe, T. Zhu, and W. A. Muller (2003)
J. Leukoc. Biol. 74, 635-641
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
HIV-1 fitness and macrophages.
M. M. Goodenow, S. L. Rose, D. L. Tuttle, and J. W. Sleasman (2003)
J. Leukoc. Biol. 74, 657-666
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Monocyte/macrophage-derived CC chemokines and their modulation by HIV-1 and cytokines: A complex network of interactions influencing viral replication and AIDS pathogenesis.
L. Fantuzzi, F. Belardelli, and S. Gessani (2003)
J. Leukoc. Biol. 74, 719-725
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Drug-loaded red blood cell-mediated clearance of HIV-1 macrophage reservoir by selective inhibition of STAT1 expression.
M. Magnani, E. Balestra, A. Fraternale, S. Aquaro, M. Paiardini, B. Cervasi, A. Casabianca, E. Garaci, and C.-F. Perno (2003)
J. Leukoc. Biol. 74, 764-771
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Antiretroviral Treatment in Resource-limited Settings.
E. Pontali, B. Vareldzis, J. Perriens, and J. P. Narain (2003)
Journal of Health Management 5, 315-326
   Abstract »    PDF »
The Vpu Protein of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Plays a Protective Role against Virus-Induced Apoptosis in Primary CD4+ T Lymphocytes.
S. Komoto, S. Tsuji, M. S. Ibrahim, Y.-G. Li, J. Warachit, K. Taniguchi, and K. Ikuta (2003)
J. Virol. 77, 10304-10313
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Theoretical Design of a Gene Therapy To Prevent AIDS but Not Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Infection.
L. S. Weinberger, D. V. Schaffer, and A. P. Arkin (2003)
J. Virol. 77, 10028-10036
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Epidemiology, Genetic Diversity, and Evolution of Endemic Feline Immunodeficiency Virus in a Population of Wild Cougars.
R. Biek, A. G. Rodrigo, D. Holley, A. Drummond, C. R. Anderson Jr., H. A. Ross, and M. Poss (2003)
J. Virol. 77, 9578-9589
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Adaptation in the env Gene of HIV-1 and Evolutionary Theories of Disease Progression.
S. Williamson (2003)
Mol. Biol. Evol. 20, 1318-1325
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Mechanisms of CD4+ T lymphocyte cell death in human immunodeficiency virus infection and AIDS.
J. B. Alimonti, T. B. Ball, and K. R. Fowke (2003)
J. Gen. Virol. 84, 1649-1661
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Short-Term Effect of Zidovudine on Plasma and Genital Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 and Viral Turnover in These Compartments.
D. Mbori-Ngacha, B. A. Richardson, J. Overbaugh, D. D. Panteleeff, R. Nduati, M. Steele, and G. John-Stewart (2003)
J. Virol. 77, 7702-7705
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Evolutionary Indicators of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Reservoirs and Compartments.
D. C. Nickle, M. A. Jensen, D. Shriner, S. J. Brodie, L. M. Frenkel, J. E. Mittler, and J. I. Mullins (2003)
J. Virol. 77, 5540-5546
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
APHS can act synergically with clinically available HIV-1 reverse transcriptase and protease inhibitors and is active against several drug-resistant HIV-1 strains in vitro.
C. F. Pereira, J. T. M. L. Paridaen, M. van de Bovenkamp, J. Middel, J. Verhoef, and H. S. L. M. Nottet (2003)
J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 51, 1181-1189
   Abstract »    Full Text »