Note to users. If you're seeing this message, it means that your browser cannot find this page's style/presentation instructions -- or possibly that you are using a browser that does not support current Web standards. Find out more about why this message is appearing, and what you can do to make your experience of our site the best it can be.


Science 5 August 1966:
Vol. 153. no. 3736, pp. 652 - 654
DOI: 10.1126/science.153.3736.652

Articles

High-Speed Scanning in Human Memory

Saul Sternberg 1

1 Bell Telephone Laboratories, Murray Hill, New Jersey

When subjects judge whether a test symbol is contained in a short memorized sequence of symbols, their mean reaction-time increases linearly with the length of the sequence. The linearity and slope of the function imply the existence of an internal serial-comparison process whose average rate is between 25 and 30 symbols per second.


THIS ARTICLE HAS BEEN CITED BY OTHER ARTICLES:
A task-irrelevant stimulus attribute affects perception and short-term memory.
J. Huang, M. J. Kahana, and R. Sekuler (2009)
Mem Cognit 37, 1088-1102
   Abstract »    PDF »
Imaging Genetic Liability to Schizophrenia: Systematic Review of fMRI Studies of Patients' Nonpsychotic Relatives.
A. W. MacDonald III, H. W. Thermenos, D. M. Barch, and L. J. Seidman (2009)
Schizophr Bull 35, 1142-1162
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Greater Working Memory Load Results in Greater Medial Temporal Activity at Retrieval.
K. Schon, Y. T. Quiroz, M. E. Hasselmo, and C. E. Stern (2009)
Cereb Cortex 19, 2561-2571
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Psychological interpretation of the ex-Gaussian and shifted Wald parameters: A diffusion model analysis.
D. Matzke and E.-J. Wagenmakers (2009)
Psychon Bull Rev 16, 798-817
   Abstract »    PDF »
Neural Representations of Individual Stimuli in Humans Revealed by Gamma-Band Electrocorticographic Activity.
J. Jacobs and M. J. Kahana (2009)
J. Neurosci. 29, 10203-10214
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Processing of order information for numbers and months.
M. S. Franklin, J. Jonides, and E. E. Smith (2009)
Mem Cognit 37, 644-654
   Abstract »    PDF »
Searching for Targets within the Spatial Layout of Visual Short-Term Memory.
B.-C. Kuo, A. Rao, J. Lepsien, and A. C. Nobre (2009)
J. Neurosci. 29, 8032-8038
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Interacting Outcome Retrieval, Anticipation, and Feedback Processes in the Human Brain.
N. D. Walsh and M. L. Phillips (2009)
Cereb Cortex
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
The hippocampus supports encoding of between-domain associations within working memory.
C. Piekema, R. P.C. Kessels, M. Rijpkema, and G. Fernandez (2009)
Learn. Mem. 16, 231-234
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Neural Suppression of Irrelevant Information Underlies Optimal Working Memory Performance.
T. P. Zanto and A. Gazzaley (2009)
J. Neurosci. 29, 3059-3066
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
The consequence of refreshing for access to nonselected items in young and older adults.
J. A. Higgins and M. K. Johnson (2009)
Mem Cognit 37, 164-174
   Abstract »    PDF »
Striatal Dopamine and Working Memory.
S. M. Landau, R. Lal, J. P. O'Neil, S. Baker, and W. J. Jagust (2009)
Cereb Cortex 19, 445-454
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Brain-Performance Correlates of Working Memory Retrieval in Schizophrenia: A Cognitive Modeling Approach.
G. G. Brown, G. McCarthy, A. Bischoff-Grethe, B. Ozyurt, D. Greve, S. G. Potkin, J. A. Turner, R. Notestine, V. D. Calhoun, J. M. Ford, et al. (2009)
Schizophr Bull 35, 32-46
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
A Genome-Wide Association Study of Schizophrenia Using Brain Activation as a Quantitative Phenotype.
S. G. Potkin, J. A. Turner, G. Guffanti, A. Lakatos, J. H. Fallon, D. D. Nguyen, D. Mathalon, J. Ford, J. Lauriello, F. Macciardi, et al. (2009)
Schizophr Bull 35, 96-108
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Working memory and DLPFC inefficiency in schizophrenia: The FBIRN study.
S. G. Potkin, J. A. Turner, G. G. Brown, G. McCarthy, D. N. Greve, G. H. Glover, D. S. Manoach, A. Belger, M. Diaz, C. G. Wible, et al. (2009)
Schizophr Bull 35, 19-31
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
CNTRICS Final Task Selection: Working Memory.
D. M. Barch, M. G. Berman, R. Engle, J. H. Jones, J. Jonides, A. MacDonald III, D. E. Nee, T. S. Redick, and S. R. Sponheim (2009)
Schizophr Bull 35, 136-152
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
MTHFR 677C -> T genotype disrupts prefrontal function in schizophrenia through an interaction with COMT 158Val -> Met.
J. L. Roffman, R. L. Gollub, V. D. Calhoun, T. H. Wassink, A. P. Weiss, B. C. Ho, T. White, V. P. Clark, J. Fries, N. C. Andreasen, et al. (2008)
PNAS 105, 17573-17578
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Memory and mood during the night and in the morning after repeated evening doses of MDMA.
K. Kuypers, M. Wingen, and J. Ramaekers (2008)
J Psychopharmacol 22, 895-903
   Abstract »    PDF »
A Neural Coding Scheme Formed by the Combined Function of Gamma and Theta Oscillations.
J. Lisman and G. Buzsaki (2008)
Schizophr Bull 34, 974-980
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Morphometric MRI Findings in the Thalamus and Brainstem in Children After Moderate to Severe Traumatic Brain Injury.
M. A. Fearing, E. D. Bigler, E. A. Wilde, J. L. Johnson, J. V. Hunter, Xiaoqi Li, G. Hanten, and H. S. Levin (2008)
J Child Neurol 23, 729-737
   Abstract »    PDF »
Studying visual search using systems factorial methodology with target-distractor similarity as the factor.
M. FIFIC, J. T. TOWNSEND, and A. EIDELS (2008)
Atten Percept Psychophys 70, 583-603
   Abstract »    PDF »
Dopamine Depletion Impairs Frontostriatal Functional Connectivity during a Set-Shifting Task.
A. Nagano-Saito, M. Leyton, O. Monchi, Y. K. Goldberg, Y. He, and A. Dagher (2008)
J. Neurosci. 28, 3697-3706
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
A Common Neural Network for Cognitive Reserve in Verbal and Object Working Memory in Young but not Old.
Y. Stern, E. Zarahn, C. Habeck, R. Holtzer, B. C. Rakitin, A. Kumar, J. Flynn, J. Steffener, and T. Brown (2008)
Cereb Cortex 18, 959-967
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Recognition and position information in working memory for visual textures.
Y. YOTSUMOTO, M. J. KAHANA, C. MCLAUGHLIN, and R. SEKULER (2008)
Mem Cognit 36, 282-294
   Abstract »    PDF »
Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex dysfunction in presymptomatic Huntington's disease: evidence from event-related fMRI.
R. C. Wolf, N. Vasic, C. Schonfeldt-Lecuona, G. B. Landwehrmeyer, and D. Ecker (2007)
Brain 130, 2845-2857
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Towards an executive without a homunculus: computational models of the prefrontal cortex/basal ganglia system.
T. E Hazy, M. J Frank, and R. C O'Reilly (2007)
Phil Trans R Soc B 362, 1601-1613
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
On the Centrality and Significance of Stimulus-Encoding Deficit in Schizophrenia.
R. W. J. Neufeld (2007)
Schizophr Bull 33, 982-993
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Acute and subchronic effects of amitriptyline 25mg on actual driving in chronic neuropathic pain patients.
D. S. Veldhuijzen, A. J.M. van Wijck, J. C. Verster, J. L. Kenemans, C. J. Kalkman, B. Olivier, and E. R. Volkerts (2006)
J Psychopharmacol 20, 782-788
   Abstract »    PDF »
Theta Oscillations in Human Cortex During a Working-Memory Task: Evidence for Local Generators.
S. Raghavachari, J. E. Lisman, M. Tully, J. R. Madsen, E. B. Bromfield, and M. J. Kahana (2006)
J Neurophysiol 95, 1630-1638
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Differential Anterior Prefrontal Activation during the Recognition Stage of a Spatial Working Memory Task.
H.-C. Leung, J.C. Gore, and P.S. Goldman-Rakic (2005)
Cereb Cortex 15, 1742-1749
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Assessing Dysfunction Using Refined Cognitive Methods.
J. Jonides and D. E. Nee (2005)
Schizophr Bull 31, 823-829
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Multi-item Working Memory -- A Behavioral Study.
V. Yakovlev, A. Bernacchia, T. Orlov, S. Hochstein, and D. Amit (2005)
Cereb Cortex 15, 602-615
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Positive Evidence against Human Hippocampal Involvement in Working Memory Maintenance of Familiar Stimuli.
E. Zarahn, B. Rakitin, D. Abela, J. Flynn, and Y. Stern (2005)
Cereb Cortex 15, 303-316
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Posterior fossa lesion volume and slowed information processing in multiple sclerosis.
C. J. Archibald, X. Wei, J. N. Scott, C. J. Wallace, Y. Zhang, L. M. Metz, and J. R. Mitchell (2004)
Brain 127, 1526-1534
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
The Neurobiology of Category Learning.
F. G. Ashby and B. J. Spiering (2004)
Behav Cogn Neurosci Rev 3, 101-113
   Abstract »    PDF »
Selective Effects of Acute Serotonin and Catecholamine Depletion on Memory in Healthy Women.
B. J. Harrison, J. S. Olver, T. R. Norman, G. D. Burrows, K. A. Wesnes, and P. J. Nathan (2004)
J Psychopharmacol 18, 32-40
   Abstract »    PDF »
Neurophysiological factors in human information processing capacity.
N. F. Ramsey, J. M. Jansma, G. Jager, T. Van Raalten, and R. S. Kahn (2004)
Brain 127, 517-525
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Gamma Oscillations Correlate with Working Memory Load in Humans.
M. W. Howard, D. S. Rizzuto, J. B. Caplan, J. R. Madsen, J. Lisman, R. Aschenbrenner-Scheibe, A. Schulze-Bonhage, and M. J. Kahana (2003)
Cereb Cortex 13, 1369-1374
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
THE EFFECTS OF CARBON DIOXIDE IN CHAMPAGNE ON PSYCHOMETRIC PERFORMANCE AND BLOOD-ALCOHOL CONCENTRATION.
F. Ridout, S. Gould, C. Nunes, and I. Hindmarch (2003)
Alcohol Alcohol. 38, 381-385
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Reset of human neocortical oscillations during a working memory task.
D. S. Rizzuto, J. R. Madsen, E. B. Bromfield, A. Schulze-Bonhage, D. Seelig, R. Aschenbrenner-Scheibe, and M. J. Kahana (2003)
PNAS 100, 7931-7936
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Decoding Digit Symbol: Speed, Memory, and Visual Scanning.
S. Joy, D. Fein, and E. Kaplan (2003)
Assessment 10, 56-65
   Abstract »    PDF »
Audiospatial and Visuospatial Working Memory in 6-13 Year Old School Children.
V. Vuontela, M.-R. Steenari, S. Carlson, J. Koivisto, M. Fjallberg, and E. T. Aronen (2003)
Learn. Mem. 10, 74-81
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Cognitive slowing in Parkinson's disease resolves after practice.
D Z Press, D J Mechanic, D Tarsy, and D S Manoach (2002)
J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 73, 524-528
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Lay Theories and Evaluation-Based Organization of Impressions: An Application of the Memory Search Paradigm.
Y.-Y. Tong and C.-Y. Chiu (2002)
Pers Soc Psychol Bull 28, 1518-1527
   Abstract »    PDF »
Oscillations in the Alpha Band (9-12 Hz) Increase with Memory Load during Retention in a Short-term Memory Task.
O. Jensen, J. Gelfand, J. Kounios, and J. E. Lisman (2002)
Cereb Cortex 12, 877-882
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Psychoanatomical substrates of Balint's syndrome.
M Rizzo and S P Vecera (2002)
J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 72, 162-178
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Effects of Domain-specific Interference on Brain Activation Associated with Verbal Working Memory Task Performance.
O. Gruber (2001)
Cereb Cortex 11, 1047-1055
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Prefrontal regions involved in keeping information in and out of mind.
S. A. Bunge, K. N. Ochsner, J. E. Desmond, G. H. Glover, and J. D. E. Gabrieli (2001)
Brain 124, 2074-2086
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Test-Retest Reliability of a Functional MRI Working Memory Paradigm in Normal and Schizophrenic Subjects.
D. S. Manoach, E. F. Halpern, T. S. Kramer, Y. Chang, D. C. Goff, S. L. Rauch, D. N. Kennedy, and R. L. Gollub (2001)
Am J Psychiatry 158, 955-958
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Gating of Human Theta Oscillations by a Working Memory Task.
S. Raghavachari, M. J. Kahana, D. S. Rizzuto, J. B. Caplan, M. P. Kirschen, B. Bourgeois, J. R. Madsen, and J. E. Lisman (2001)
J. Neurosci. 21, 3175-3183
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Multichannel Auditory Search: Toward Understanding Control Processes in Polychotic Auditory Listening.
M. D. Lee (2001)
Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 43, 328-342
   Abstract »    PDF »
Theta oscillations index human hippocampal activation during a working memory task.
C. D. Tesche and J. Karhu (2000)
PNAS 97, 919-924
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Assessment of cognitive and psychological functions in patients with multiple sclerosis: considerations for databasing.
W. W Beatty (1999)
Multiple Sclerosis 5, 239-243
   Abstract »    PDF »
A Placebo-Controlled Trial of D-Cycloserine Added to Conventional Neuroleptics in Patients With Schizophrenia.
D. C. Goff, G. Tsai, J. Levitt, E. Amico, D. Manoach, D. A. Schoenfeld, D. L. Hayden, R. McCarley, and J. T. Coyle (1999)
Arch Gen Psychiatry 56, 21-27
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
An Oscillatory Short-Term Memory Buffer Model Can Account for Data on the Sternberg Task.
O. Jensen and J. E. Lisman (1998)
J. Neurosci. 18, 10688-10699
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Perceptions of More Complete Musical Compositions: An Exploratory Study.
W. L. Berz and A. E. Kelly (1998)
Psychology of Music 26, 175-185
   Abstract »
Neuroimaging analyses of human working memory.
E. E. Smith and J. Jonides (1998)
PNAS 95, 12061-12068
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Transition of Brain Activation from Frontal to Parietal Areas in Visuomotor Sequence Learning.
K. Sakai, O. Hikosaka, S. Miyauchi, R. Takino, Y. Sasaki, and B. Putz (1998)
J. Neurosci. 18, 1827-1840
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Components of verbal working memory: Evidence from neuroimaging.
E. E. Smith, J. Jonides, C. Marshuetz, and R. A. Koeppe (1998)
PNAS 95, 876-882
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Randomized Double-blind Placebo-Controlled Trial of Peptide T for HIV-Associated Cognitive Impairment.
P. N. R. Heseltine, K. Goodkin, J. H. Atkinson, B. Vitiello, J. Rochon, R. K. Heaton, E. M. Eaton, F. L. Wilkie, E. Sobel, S. J. Brown, et al. (1998)
Arch Neurol 55, 41-51
   Abstract »    Full Text »    PDF »
Physiologically realistic formation of autoassociative memory in networks with theta/gamma oscillations: role of fast NMDA channels..
O Jensen, M A Idiart, and J E Lisman (1996)
Learn. Mem. 3, 243-256
   Abstract »    PDF »
Motor cortical activity in a context-recall task.
G Pellizzer, P Sargent, and A. Georgopoulos (1995)
Science 269, 702-705
   Abstract »    PDF »
Storage of 7 +/- 2 short-term memories in oscillatory subcycles.
J. Lisman and M. Idiart (1995)
Science 267, 1512-1515
   Abstract »    PDF »
Plasma Cobalamin Levels Affect Information Processing Speed in a Longitudinal Study of HIV-1 Disease.
G. Shor-Posner, R. Morgan, F. Wilkie, C. Eisdorfer, and M. K. Baum (1995)
Arch Neurol 52, 195-198
   Abstract »    PDF »
Plasma Vitamin B12 Level as a Potential Cofactor in Studies of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1--Related Cognitive Changes.
R. S. Beach, R. Morgan, F. Wilkie, E. Mantero-Atienza, N. Blaney, G. Shor-Posner, Y. Lu, C. Eisdorfer, and M. K. Baum (1992)
Arch Neurol 49, 501-506
   Abstract »    PDF »
A 'Stress' Test for Memory Dysfunction: Electrophysiologic Manifestations of Early Alzheimer's Disease.
L. deToledo-Morrell, S. Evers, T. J. Hoeppner, F. Morrell, D. C. Garron, and J. H. Fox (1991)
Arch Neurol 48, 605-609
   Abstract »    PDF »
The Theory of Rational Choice, Its Shortcomings, and the Implications for Public Policy Decision Making.
T. S. Ulen (1990)
Science Communication 12, 170-198
   Abstract »
Carbamazepine-10,11-Epoxide in Epilepsy A Pilot Study.
T. Tomson, O. Almkvist, B. Y. Nilsson, J.-O. Svensson, and L. Bertilsson (1990)
Arch Neurol 47, 888-892
   Abstract »    PDF »
Cognition in Early Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection.
F. L. Wilkie, C. Eisdorfer, R. Morgan, D. A. Loewenstein, and J. Szapocznik (1990)
Arch Neurol 47, 433-440
   Abstract »    PDF »
Leuko-Araiosis on Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Speed of Mental Processing.
C. Junque, J. Pujol, P. Vendrell, O. Bruna, M. Jodar, J. C. Ribas, J. Vinas, A. Capdevila, and J. L. Marti-Vilalta (1990)
Arch Neurol 47, 151-156
   Abstract »    PDF »
Memory Impairment in Patients With Progressive Supranuclear Palsy.
I. Litvan, J. Grafman, C. Gomez, and T. N. Chase (1989)
Arch Neurol 46, 765-767
   Abstract »    PDF »
Slowed Information Processing in Multiple Sclerosis.
I. Litvan, J. Grafman, P. Vendrell, and J. M. Martinez (1988)
Arch Neurol 45, 281-285
   Abstract »    PDF »
The Integrated Personality: Maximal Utilization of Information.
R. S. Behrends (1986)
Journal of Humanistic Psychology 26, 27-59
   Abstract »
Chapter 5: Cognitive Psychological Approaches to Instructional Task Analysis.
M. K. Gardner (1985)
Review of Research in Education 12, 157-195
   PDF »
Planning Skills and Mathematics Achievement: Implications Regarding Learning Disability.
J. R. Kirby and A. F. Ashman (1984)
Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment 2, 9-22
   Abstract »    PDF »
Monkey and human pictorial memory scanning.
S. Sands and A. Wright (1982)
Science 216, 1333-1334
   Abstract »    PDF »
The Development and Application of a Computerized Information-Processing Test Battery.
G. V. Barrett, R. A. Alexander, D. Doverspike, D. Cellar, and J. C. Thomas (1982)
Applied Psychological Measurement 6, 13-29
   Abstract »    PDF »
Cognitive Dysfunction and Imipramine in Outpatient Depressives.
R. M. Glass, E. H. Uhlenhuth, F. W. Hartel, W. Matuzas, and M. W. Fischman (1981)
Arch Gen Psychiatry 38, 1048-1051
   Abstract »    PDF »
Primate memory: retention of serial list items by a rhesus monkey.
S. Sands and A. Wright (1980)
Science 209, 938-940
   Abstract »    PDF »
Critical-path scheduling of mental processes in a dual task.
R Schweickert (1980)
Science 209, 704-706
   Abstract »    PDF »
Memory impairment in epileptic patients: selective effects of phenobarbital concentration.
C. MacLeod, A. Dekabian, and E Hunt (1978)
Science 202, 1102-1104
   Abstract »    PDF »
Physostigmine: improvement of long-term memory processes in normal humans.
K. Davis, R. Mohs, Tinklenberg JR, A Pfefferbaum, L. Hollister, and B. Kopell (1978)
Science 201, 272-274
   Abstract »    PDF »
Memory Retrieval from Long and Short Lists.
D. Burrows and R. Okada (1975)
Science 188, 1031-1033
   Abstract »    PDF »
Speed-Accuracy Trade-Off in Recognition Memory.
A. V. Reed (1973)
Science 181, 574-576
   Abstract »    PDF »
Evoked Potential Correlates of Signal Recognition between and within Modalities.
J. M. Ford, W. T. Roth, S. J. Dirks, and B. S. Kopell (1973)
Science 181, 465-466
   Abstract »    PDF »
Target-Set and Response-Set Interaction: Implications for Models of Human Information Processing.
H. Egeth, N. Marcus, and W. Bevan (1972)
Science 176, 1447-1448
   Abstract »    PDF »



To Advertise     Find Products


Science. ISSN 0036-8075 (print), 1095-9203 (online)